WA POLICE ACADEMY COMMAND & LAND OPERATIONS UNIT
AIDS TO SURVIVAL
AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Twenty Second Edition [First Issued 1979]
June 2002
This book is a Western Australia Police Academy Publication and is available free of charge
to individuals from their local Police Station. Organisations or groups requiring larger
quantities can access and download this publication from our website
[www.police.wa.gov.au]. The book is offered as an ongoing service in the interest of
community safety. The contents are not subject to copyright and there are no restrictions on
copying in any fonn by interested individuals and groups.
In keeping with the mission of the Western Australia Police Service to work in partnership
with the community to create a safer and more secure Western Australia by providing quality
police services the Command & Land Operations Unit at the Western Australia Police
Academy invite comments, affirmations and suggestions for possible inclusion in future
editions in an endeavour to improve this publication. Comments may be forwarded to the
Command & Land Operations Unit at the Western Australia Police Academy.
A copy of this publication has been deposited in the Australian National Library.
ISBN: 0-646-36303-4
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Introduction
This Western Australia Police Academy publication was initially written and compiled by
Sergeant Bert O’Meagher APM, Officer In Charge, Command & Land Operations Unit at the
Western Australia Police Academy in collaboration with First Class Constable Dennis Reid
and Dr Ross Harvey MBBS Dobst RCOG.
The Command & Land Operations Unit was introduced to provide members of the Western
Australia Police Service with the necessary skills and knowledge to carry out their duties in
outback Western Australia and to enable them to co-ordinate or participate in emergency
operations and advise on outback safety. In keeping with the WA Police Service mission to
provide a safer and more secure Western Australia the unit is concerned with the education of
interested community groups and individuals.
Originally the book was produced to provide members of the Western Australia Police
Service with a locally produced source of reference for use in training and for dissemination
to the public. To this end the book has proved to be extremely successful, this being the 22nd
edition with over 435,000 copies being distributed since its introduction in 1979.
The book is required reading for several community groups, youth organisations, education
institutions and industry trainers throughout Western Australia. It is now available on the
Internet under the WA Police Service website.
A dedicated group of community minded individuals and organisations have contributed
infonnation and items over the years and their efforts and contributions are much appreciated.
Contributors include - Peter Bindon, Vern Delgado, Arthur Connor, Graham Brammer,
Ronele and Eric Gard, Richard Lushey, John Evans [CALM], The Duke of Edinburgh’s
Award [WA], The Royal Lifesaving Society [WA], St John Ambulance [WA], Red Cross
[WA], Bureau Of Meteorology [WA], Australian Communications Authority and Sergeant
Phil Ramsay [WA Police]. Diagrams were originally drawn by Western Australian
Government Print.
Staff at the Western Australia Police Academy Command & Land Operations Unit who have
contributed to the book include Senior Constable Paul McKee, Senior Constable Ian
Thomson, Senior Constable David Stark, Senior Constable Douglas Fleetwood and
Senior Constable Glen Blackwell.
Thanks are also extended to students of classes conducted by the Western Australia Police
Academy Command & Land Operations Unit and members of the community of Western
Australia who have provided valuable comment and feedback.
M.W. SHERVILL.
SUPERINTENDENT
PRINCIPAL
WESTERN AUSTRALIA POLICE ACADEMY.
June-02
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Contents
CHAPTER 1 7
Safe Outback Travel 7
PRIOR PREPARATION & PLANNING 7
VEHICLE SELECTION 9
VEHICLE PREPARATION 9
VEHICLE AWARENESS 11
VEHICLE CHECK LIST 12
VEHICLE TOOL KITS 13
VEHICLE RECOVERY EQUIPMENT 13
OFF-ROAD DRIVING TIPS 14
OUTBACK TRAVEL CODE OF ETHICS 15
CHAPTER 2 16
Outback Survival 16
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL 16
ACTIONS BY SURVIVORS 17
SURVIVAL PLANS 18
PERSONAL SURVIVAL KIT 20
VEHICLE/AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY PACK 20
Water 21
THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO SURVIVAL 21
METHODS OF WATER PROCUREMENT 22
WATER PURIFICATION 26
Shelter 27
TYPES OF SHELTERS 27
Warmth 30
FIRELIGHTING WITHOUT MATCHES 30
Food 32
LIVING OFF THE LAND 32
THE FOOD PREFERENTIAL 32
SNARING ANIMALS 33
ANIMAL BUTCHERY 39
PREPARATION & COOKING OF GAME 39
PRESERVING MEAT 40
EDIBLE PLANTS 41
PLANTS TO AVOID 41
THE TASTE TEST FOR PLANT EDIBILITY 41
SOME COMMON TYPES OF EDIBLE VEGETATION 42
EDIBLE INSECT ACTIVITY ON PLANTS 43
CHAPTER 3 44
Direction Finding 44
WATCH METHOD 44
BUSHMAN’S METHOD 44
HAND SPAN METHOD 45
THE SHADOW STICK 45
THE SOUTHERN CROSS METHOD - AT NIGHT 46
NAVIGATING AT NIGHT WITHOUT A COMPASS 46
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 4 47
Emergency Procedures 47
PROCEDURE IF LOST 47
ELECTRONIC SAFETY AIDS 48
EMERGENCY SIGNALS 48
BUSHWALKING SAFETY 50
BUSHFIRE SURVIVAL 51
CHAPTER 5 52
Radio Communications 52
CITIZEN BAND RADIO 52
OPERATING PROCEDURES 52
EXAMPLES OF TRANSMISSIONS 54
EMERGENCY RADIO PROCEDURES 55
CHAPTER 6 56
Creek & River Crossings 56
APPRECIATIONS 56
METHODS OF CROSSING CREEKS & RIVERS 57
CHAPTER 7 58
Bush First Aid 58
CONDITIONS 58
BASIC LIFE SUPPORT 59
FRACTURES 60
FRACTURES OF THE SPINE 60
SPRAINS 60
HEAD INJURY 61
BURNS AND SCALDS 61
BLEEDING 62
PAIN 62
HYSTERIA 62
ASPHYXIA 62
INSECT BITES 63
SNAKE BITE 63
CUTS AND ABRASIONS 64
BLISTERS 64
SPLINTERS 64
CARE OF FEET 64
CASUALTY ACTION 64
HYPOTHERMIA 65
FROST BITE 65
HYPERTHERMIA 66
SALT DEPLETION 66
WAPA TEAM FIELD FIRST AID KIT 67
WAPA FIELD HEADQUARTERS BASE FIRST AID KIT 67
ST JOHN AMBULANCE HIKERS FIRST AID PACK 68
RED CROSS HIKING FIRST AID KIT 68
ACTIVITY-SPECIFIC FIRST AID KITS 68
DEALING WITH DEATH 69
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 8 70
Land Navigation 70
MAP READING 70
TERMS USED IN MAP READING 72
NAVIGATION ROUTE PLAN 73
NAVIGATION ROUTE PLAN CARD 74
GRID REFERENCES 75
MEASURING DISTANCES ON A MAP 76
THE POINTS OF A COMPASS 76
NORTH POINTS 77
The Orienteering Compass 78
MAGNETIC VARIATION 79
CONTOURS 80
DRAWING A SECTION 81
PREDICTING WALKING TIME 81
SETTING THE COMPASS TO WALK ON A MAGNETIC BEARING 81
TO TAKE A MAGNETIC BEARING 82
BACK BEARINGS 82
ALTERING DIRECTION TO AVOID AN OBSTACLE 82
COMPASS ERRORS 82
COMPASS RESECTIONS 83
Global Positioning Systems 83
CHAPTER 9 84
Expedition Skills 84
THE ROLE OF EXPEDITIONS 84
EXPEDITION LEADERSHIP 84
PRE-WALK CONSIDERATIONS 85
THE EXPEDITION PLANNING PROCESS 86
BRIEFINGS 86
EXPEDITION PLANS 86
DE-BRIEFINGS 87
PRACTICAL BUSHWALKING 88
JOURNAL WRITING 89
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 89
PRINCIPLES OF MINIMUM IMPACT CAMPING 90
FOOD AND COOKING 91
WAPA RATION PACK - 8 HOUR FOR 1 PERSON 93
WAPA RATION PACK - 24 HOUR FOR 1 PERSON 94
RECREATIONAL 2 - DAY RATION PACK FOR 1 PERSON 95
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT 96
PERSONAL & EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT 98
INDIVIDUAL CAMPING EQUIPMENT 99
GROUP CAMPING EQUIPMENT 100
EXPEDITION EQUIPMENT CHECK LIST 102
PACKING AND LOAD CARRYING 102
CAMPCRAFT 103
HYGIENE 104
WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS 104
WEATHER PATTERNS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA 105
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 1
Safe Outback Travel
Adequate preparation before undertaking a journey or accepting employment in the outback
will lessen the chance of jeopardising human life. There have been many cases where loss of
life has resulted from a lack of foresight into the problems involved. The WA Police Service
in it’s mission to create a safer and more secure Western Australia provides a service which is
responsive to community needs and is willing to act as a first point of call for safe outback
travel. Members of the public are encouraged to discuss their trip plans and post notifications
with local police.
PRIOR PREPARATION & PLANNING
There are a number of things to be considered before starting to pack for your trip, these are
known colloquially as the ‘Rule of P’ and are linked to the premise that -
Prior Preparation and Planning Prevents Poor Performance.
Equipment Required
The equipment you are taking must be serviceable and sufficient for the trip. Allow additional
equipment if in doubt. Maps should cover the entire area of the trip.
Radio Communications
For close range communication between vehicles a citizen band UHF or VHF radio may be
used, however for long-range radio communication a HF radio is essential, these can be hired
from communications suppliers at reasonable rates. Whilst travelling in the outback it is good
practice to set up a communication schedule with the Royal Flying Doctor Service and
contact them daily advising them who you are and where you are.
Satellite/Digital Telephone Communications
It is now possible to ensure telephone communications in the outback with the introduction of
a system of digital telephones that allow the user to call on his/her digital phone and be
connected automatically to a satellite system with no time delay if in an area not covered by a
digital network. This system has a saturation system of satellites that download to ground
stations and ensure instantaneous voice communication with no time delay between sending
and receiving.
Terrain to be covered
A map study should be done to ascertain -
• Whether it is accessible by vehicle
• Where the fuel and water sources are located
• What is the best route
• What alternate route could you use if necessary
• What aids to navigation will you have
• What positions of evacuation are available
• Where are the local inhabitants
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Use of Maps
The Western Australian bush is very monotonous with very few landmarks and a lack of
signposts on outback roads. Be wary of spoken directions as they can be misinterpreted and
the wrong track easily taken. In the absence of an official map, try to obtain a rough map
drawn on paper with as many landmarks as possible indicated showing the necessary
distances. Mark your position on the map as you proceed so you can pinpoint your location at
any given time. Do confirm your position at every opportunity.
Weather Conditions
The weather must be considered as many road conditions vary according to the local rainfall.
You should be aware of the changes of season in the area of your trip, this will ensure that
you are going at the best time of year. Check with police or local authorities after rain as
many outback roads can be closed.
Time allowance
You should consider carefully the time and space you are allowing for your trip.
Considerations should include -
• When are you leaving?
• How long will it take?
• Where do you propose stopping to camp?
• When will you arrive?
• Have you allowed a safety margin in case of minor mishaps?
Learn about the country
You should learn as much about the country you are to travel, as possible. This will assist you
if you have to survive in it.
Things to study would be -
• Dangerous animals and reptiles
• Insects, flies and mosquitoes
• Prickle bushes and any poisonous or discomfiting plants
• Any edible wild foods and bush tucker
• Available water sources
• Caves, mine- workings, holes and local problems
• Diseases to guard against
Notifications
Before leaving on a journey through remote areas always notify friends, relatives, station
owners or police of the following infonnation -
1 . Estimated time of departure [ETD]
2. Proposed and alternate routes
3. Estimated time of arrival [ETA]
Note:
Don't forget to notify those concerned once you have safely completed the journey.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
VEHICLE SELECTION
Selection of a suitable vehicle for safe outback travel will rely on the load that you are going
to carry. As well as major items of fuel, food and water you may also be carrying camping
equipment, cooking gear, vehicle spares, tools, recovery equipment, an extra spare tyre and
passengers. If you choose to travel 'off road' you will need to be sure your vehicle can
withstand the harsh and rugged conditions you will encounter.
VEHICLE PREPARATION
Your vehicle will not only be your means of transport but if you are travelling 'off road' it will
be your home and of course your biggest aid to survival should something unforeseen happen
to you. As such it must be in first class mechanical condition.
If you are not a mechanic it is best to take the vehicle to one who specialises in this type of
vehicle. Explain the nature of your trip and have them go over the vehicle from top to bottom.
Short courses in vehicle maintenance are offered by most community, TAFE Colleges, etc.
Roof Racks
To carry the intended load you will probably need to install a roof rack. Buy only from a
reputable manufacturer who specialises in your type of vehicle.
Under Body Protection Plates
These are considered necessary by some people for rocky creek crossings, etc. They can be a
problem in spinifex country as after only a few kilometres' spinifex packs tightly under the
plate and creates a definite fire hazard.
Roo and Scrub Bars
These are not essential items for off-road travel but they can be good value should you be
unlucky enough to hit a kangaroo or other large animal.
Spinifex Protection
Some spinifex grows to a height of nearly 2m and the seeds can be drawn into the radiator. At
least 3 layers of fibreglass wire netting should be placed over the front of the vehicle.
Fire Extinguishers
It is good planning to carry at least 5 litres of water in a plastic garden spray for spinifex and
grass fires as well as an extinguisher suitable for electrical or fuel fires.
Tyres
It is important to discuss your tyres with your local tyre dealer before your trip. Ensure you
have the right tyres for the task. Eight ply radials are recommended as a minimum for off-road
use. Two spares plus an additional 2 tubes should be carried.
Wheel Rims
It is easier to change a tyre on a split rim than on a pressed safety rim or alloy rim so stick
with the standard steel split rim if possible otherwise a specially designed bead-breaker should
be carried for removing tyres from rims and replacing them.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Recovery Equipment
A valuable accessory for getting out of bogs is the exhaust jack. This is a blow-up heavy duty
rubber/canvas bag which is placed under the vehicle and inflated by connecting it to the
exhaust pipe with the engine running. Its purpose is to jack up the vehicle on any surface.
Winches
Types of winches range from hand, electric or power take off. If you have a winch fitted to
your vehicle make sure you know how to use it. Some simple safety rules include -
• Always use a sling around an anchor point rather than forming a loop.
• Never place your hands within lm of the drum if the winch is operating.
• Always leave six turns of cable on the drum.
• Run the engine when using an electric winch.
• Do not pull if the cable is more than 15° to either side.
Dual Battery Systems
When operating in the outback each battery should be used individually on a daily basis.
When making camp for the night the appropriate drill should be used to ensure that the
alternate battery is fully charged and will start the vehicle in the morning. The battery used for
overnight use [refrigerator, etc.] may go flat.
Fuel
Long-range fuel tanks are an excellent idea but make sure yours is fitted in the approximate
centre of the vehicle between the chassis rails. Use the rear ta nk first to equalise load. If you
do not have a long-range ta nk then 20 litre jerry cans are an excellent method of carrying fuel.
If you carry jerry cans make sure they are metal or designed to carry fuel and use tie wire on
all caps to prevent spillage.
Water
Allow 4 to 5 litres of drinking water for each person per day while travelling. If you have a
built in water tank fitted with an external tap it should be fitted with a tap guard and the tap
itself lock-wired when moving.
Emergency Pack
Enough spare food, water and blankets should be included to allow for any unforeseen delays.
Emergency rations should last at least three days on top of your planned trip. A three-day
emergency pack for each person should consist of-
• 6 ready to eat meals
• 4 litres of water
• Emergency blanket
Vehicle Loading
The loading of the vehicle is critical and the vehicle's centre of gravity kept as low as possible
always. Get in the habit of checking whenever you stop.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
VEHICLE A WARENESS
The development of electronic [computer] engine management systems for modem diesel
engines has forced a change in the way diesel 4WD owners operate their vehicles. The
reservations a lot of people had with the development of computer engine management
systems in petrol-powered 4WD vehicles in the early 90’ s were in most cases largely
unfounded. What was required then and now with the modern diesel is driver education.
Gone are the days when all a diesel 4WD owner had to worry about with a water crossing was
keeping the air intake out of the water. In effect these new generation 4WD diesels, because
of the electronics, have to be treated like petrol-powered vehicles. Contact your local dealer or
4WD service centre and have them point out the location of the vulnerable points [electronic]
under the bonnet of the vehicle.
Remember a clean engine is less likely to short out. To prevent condensation [a problem for
any electrics] clean the engine bay when the engine is cold with low-pressure cold water.
Once these vulnerable or sensitive components are located suitable precautions can be taken.
The location of the main computer is usually under the seats or behind the front left or right
inside kick panels, near your feet.
A word of caution with these computer managed 4WD’s for those who traditionally fit their
own radios and other electrical accessories. Finding the nearest live wire or earth and
connecting to it is fraught with danger. If the pick-up wire is part of the computer
management hardware that carries signals and mixed voltages you could unknowingly cause
expensive irreparable damage.
Note:
To prevent damage have any electrical accessories fitted by a professional.
Jump-starting is no longer a matter of connecting any set of jumper leads between vehicles.
Your leads should have a surge protector fitted to prevent a possible voltage spike which will
damage most computers.
Most 4WD vehicles with computer management systems will have an emergency limp home
mode that comes into play when the engine management system has been adversely affected.
Although the extent of operation will vary from vehicle to vehicle road speed will be limited
and cruise control, traction control and other non-vital functions will be disabled. Visually, a
dashboard-warning icon will be displayed telling you which system has been disabled.
The benefits gained from computer engine management systems for diesels such as more
power, better fuel economy and lower fuel emissions should not be jeopardised by a driver’s
level of ability or lack of knowledge and understanding of the vehicles systems and
components. As a new owner you should take the time to study the owners manual and
consult with your dealer or 4WD service centre before you venture off road.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
VEHICLE CHECK LIST
The following items should be checked at the end of each day. This procedure should be
conducted as part of your everyday routine and should never be neglected.
1 . Check engine drive belts
2. Check engine oil levels
3. Check coolant levels
4. Check fuel filter [if possible]
5. Clean air cleaner
6. Clean radiator fins
7. Check brake fluid levels
8. Check clutch fluid levels
9. Check power steering fluid level
10. Check engine for oil leaks
1 1 . Check engine for coolant leaks
12. Check transmission for oil leaks
13. Check differential for oil leaks
14. Check all steering rods for wear and cracking
15. Check all joints for wear and cracking
16. Check all tyre pressures
17. Check all tyres for damage
18. Check battery levels
19. Check chassis rails for cracks
20. Tighten all mounting bolts, etc.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
VEHICLE TOOL KITS
A comprehensive tool kit should be carried and should be suited specifically to your vehicle.
Suggested items include -
Vehicle Tool Kit
Screwdriver, 200mm
Screwdriver, Phillips
Pliers, general purpose
Pliers, long nose
Spanner, adjustable 200mm
Tyre pressure gauge
Set metric spanners and sockets
Small hammer, hacksaw and blades
Spark plug socket *
Set of radiator and heater hoses
Tyre pump, hand or foot operated
Condenser and Coil *
Funnel
Can of aerosol de-wetting agent
Brake fluid, 500ml
Engine oil, 5L and Gear oil, 500ml
Trouble light
Araldite fixative
Bead-breaker & tyre re-fitting tool
Note:
* Diesel vehicles do not require these items.
VEHICLE RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
If you travel in the outback "off road" at some stage you are going to encounter sand dunes,
claypans, salt lakes and rocky creek beds. You are eventually going to become stuck and a
complete vehicle recovery kit should be carried.
Vehicle Recovery Kit
Recovery equipment carry bag. Ground sheet. Leather gloves. Long handled and short
handled shovels. Axe [medium size]. Winch [hand or fully fitted electric]. Snatch strap 9m
based on 4WD size 8,000kg - 11,000kg - 15,000kg. Tree trunk protector 3m [12,000kg].
Recovery bridle. Drag chain 8mm diameter, 5m long [8,500kg]. Bow shackle 2.35T. Bow
shackle 4.75T. Marlin spike. Snatch block. Centre pull recovery adaptor for fitting to tow bar.
Vehicle jack with base plate [300x300 recessed marine ply]. Hi-lift jack [remember to fit jack
lift points]. Air jack [Bull bag]. Air compressor.
Oil Filter
Insulating tape, roll
Alligator clips, electrical
Electrical wire, roll 3 mm
Tyre levers and wheel brace
Wheel brace
Feeler gauges, set *
Fan belt and Power steering belt
Contact points* and Spark plugs*
Jumper leads
Grease, 500gms and Epoxy resin
Fuel filter
Masking tape
Rubber vulcanising tape
Plastic tubing, 8mm
Paint brush
Magnet
Electrical fuses, set
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
OFF-ROAD DRIVING TIPS
Whether you intend travelling to the Pilbara, the Kimberly or out to the Bight the locations
may be vastly different but the off road driving principles remain the same. Your trip can be
safer and free from costly damage to your vehicle by following these driving tips -
• First of all find out the overhang distance of your vehicle. This is the distance from the
front of your vehicle to the first point you see on the road in front of the vehicle. The
point in front of the vehicle is calculated with you seated normally in the drivers seat.
You will be surprised at how far this overhang distance extends to the front.
• As the road is constantly changing you must learn to search ground quickly and make
decisions on wheel placement early.
• Lower your radio aerial to prevent damage or fit one with a spring base.
• Search the ground in a rectangular pattern looking from the front as far out as possible
on the drivers-side wheel track and then back in towards the vehicle along the
passenger-side wheel track.
• Identify and avoid any object that can damage the tyres or under-body components of
the vehicle such as stumps, sharp rocks, or deep potholes. At times it may be better to
drive a wheel over a large rock rather than have the vehicle straddle it. By doing this
you raise the vehicle’s differential ground clearance and you prevent possible under
body damage by hitting rocks. Assist with this by learning the location of the front and
rear differentials in relation to where you as the driver sit.
• Remember where applicable to lock your free wheeling hubs or central differential.
• It is a good idea to lower your tyre pressure to around 80% of your highway running
pressure. This will give the tyres a little more flex and grip to mould over rocks and
loose gravel rather than causing the wheels to spin and lose traction, which would
occur if the tyres were left at the hard highway running pressure.
• When driving in soft or sandy conditions the lowering of tyre pressures can prevent
bogging. Tyres can be lowered to a minimum pressure of 16psi in both split and safety
rims. Tyres must be re-inflated immediately after traversing the obstacle, failure to do
so will lead to tyre damage.
• Where you are going up or down a steep hill always engage low range on the transfer
case. For those vehicles that don’t have a low range capability be very careful to
assess the terrain so that you may safely negotiate it.
• For those auto transmission 4WD vehicles select low range and lock the gear lever in
low gear whenever descending a steep off-road track.
• Drivers of manual 4WD vehicles should remember that depressing or riding the clutch
off-road is fraught with danger.
• If you stall or stop the vehicle on a descent you can restart in low range with the
vehicle in gear. Simply turn the key on and do not depress the clutch. Cover the brake
pedal and be ready to apply brake pressure if the vehicle surges forward [common
with fuel-injected vehicles]. This ensures you are under control at all times with the
engine running and gears engaged. Don’t ride the brakes but feather them as required
to slow the rate of descent.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
OUTBACK TRAVEL CODE OF ETHICS
Outback travellers should consider themselves caretakers of the land and ensure that their
actions do not add to the degradation of the landscape.
• Do make sure your vehicle is in sound mechanical condition and equipped with all
necessary fuel, food, water and spares needed to complete the journey.
• Do have the ability to communicate with the outside world either by radio, satellite
phone or global positioning system e-mail.
• Do tell someone of your intentions. Notification of your time of departure, intended
route, campsites and estimated time of arrival at your destination may be posted at
local police stations.
• Do camp in designated campsites or in natural clearings if none are available.
• Do observe fire restrictions, clear around fire areas and extinguish all fires.
• Don’t break or cut live branches from trees and shrubs for fires or campsites.
• Don’t leave garbage in the bush. Carry garbage bags with you and remove your
waste.
• Do stay on existing tracks and endeavour not to create new tracks or short cuts.
• Do clear fallen trees or logs if possible rather than driving around them.
• Don’t camp near stock troughs or in water catchments.
• Do carry maps, information on terrain, track and weather conditions, navigation
equipment and set escape routes.
• Don’t travel off-road at night. If you must travel at night use only 50% of the speed
you would use during the day and do not attempt rocky ground, mud patches or deep
water crossings.
• Do know your vehicle controls so you know where they are in an emergency.
• Do know the length and width of your vehicle for negotiating difficult terrain.
• Don’t infringe on the privacy of aboriginal people or any settlement and be aware that
pennission must be obtained to cross aboriginal reserves and communities.
• Don’t carry firearms on pastoral leases without permission from the lessees.
• Travellers from outside Western Australia must obtain a temporary firearms pennit
from the nearest Police Station on entering the state.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 2
Outback Survival
Survival is best defined as simply staying alive. Generally speaking survival in the outback is
a day-to-day proposition. Each day can be broken into two parts, ensuring that once the sun
rises your efforts are directed to staying alive to see it set and vice versa once the sun sets to
see it rise.
The first rule of survival
The first rule of survival is ‘don’t panic’. You must take stock of your situation.
The survival mnemonic
The survival mnemonic will assist you to avoid immediate panic.
S Size up the situation.
U Undue haste makes waste.
R Remember where you are.
V Vanquish fear and panic.
I Improvise.
V Value living.
A Act like the locals.
L Lean on your basic skills.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SURVIVAL
You will need four basic requirements to survive, they are -
1. Water
2. Shelter
3. Warmth
4. Food
In general the priorities will be as listed, however, in some situations you may alter them to
suit, for instance in the arid zone shelter may become number one priority if sufficient water
is available. If you have taken the precaution of notifying someone of where you are going
and how long you intend to stay a search will no doubt be conducted to look for you if you are
overdue. Your task will be to use the knowledge and skills you have to provide the four basic
requirements to stay alive until found.
Note:
Prior planning and preparation prevents poor performance.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
ACTIONS BY SURVIVORS
While a survival situation will be a traumatic experience for most people the effect it will
have will depend on circumstances. For instance a person suffering a vehicle breakdown in
spring in the southwest region of Western Australia will have a different reaction to a person
who suffers a similar breakdown in mid-summer in the Great Sandy Desert.
Stress and Survivors
Stress is defined simply as reaction to pressure.
Stressors
Events that cause stress are known as stressors, the most important stressors affecting survival
include heat, cold, thirst, hunger, fatigue, boredom, loneliness, fear and pain.
Reactions To Stress
There are natural reactions to stress that need to be recognised, expected and for which
strategic interventions need to be implemented. These include fear, anxiety, anger, frustration
and depression. Do not over-react and remember that too much stress leads to ‘distress’
resulting in anti-social behaviour, angry outbursts, difficulty making decisions, unwillingness
to accept responsibility, an inability to get on with others and eventual withdrawal from the
group.
Initial Critical Reactions
Recognise that you are in a survival situation and don’t be afraid to make an honest appraisal
of the situation. Get your thoughts on track by employing the survival mnemonic and
recognise any survival stressors that are present. Overcome any attitude assumptions [S he ’ll
be right. It will never happen to me. If anything does happen my instinct, faith and inner
strength will get me through ] and adopt a positive attitude. Your life and the lives of others
who are relying on you to do your share are at stake. Remember that your physical strength
and emotional resources are at their strongest in the first three days of survival.
Questions You Should Ask Yourself In A Survival Situation
You should stay focussed on the basic requirements for survival and ask yourself -
• How much water do I have and how will I procure more?
• What shelter from the elements will I need?
• What is the temperature range and will I need a fire for warmth?
• How much food do I have and what food is available?
Survival Situation Appreciations
An appreciation is a logical process of reasoning, the object of which is to determine from
factors both known or assumed, the best course of action to take in any given situation. The
six elements to a survival situation appreciation are -
1 . Review the situation.
2. Detennine your aim.
3. List the factors affecting your survival.
4. Identify all courses open to you.
5. Select the best course of action.
6. Make a plan.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
SURVIVAL PLANS
The Survival Plan is the final process by which you or the group have chosen to stay alive. It
is the final result of your appreciation and should be based on the facts at hand that have been
subject to thorough and systematic thought and/or discussion. It needs to be prepared in a
systematic way and re-examined regularly. It must be accurate, brief but clear, contain all
necessary information and most importantly be capable of being carried out.
Layout of survival plans
Plans need to follow a logical sequence to ensure all aspects are covered. The five headings
covered by the plan should include -
S Situation
M Mission
E Execution
A Administration & Logistics
C Command & Communications
SITUATION [brief description of what has happened]
This is a brief description of factors known and assumed from what has happened and should
include the following details -
Human resources
What skills are available within the group? Does anyone have any survival knowledge? Is
there anybody in the group with professional or specific capabilities? Does anyone have any
disabilities or limiting health conditions?
Water
What water do you have? Is it likely to rain? Is there any water available in the area? What
equipment do you have for storing water, carrying water and water procurement?
Shelter
What prevailing conditions do you need to shelter from? What can be improvised to provide
shelter? What items do you have that can be used to build shelters?
Warmth
Do you have matches or a cigarette lighter? Can you identify any alternative methods of
lighting fires? Can you gather enough fuel to sustain warmth for a period of days?
Food
What food do you have? Is there any food available in the area? What equipment do you have
for hunting, gathering and storing food?
Location
What is your present general location?
Direction
Can you indicate north, south, east and west?
Rescue
How do you expect to be rescued? What direction do you expect rescue to come from? How
will you signal rescuers? What is available to build rescue signals?
Equipment
What equipment do you have and what can be improvised?
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
MISSION [overall objective of what you hope to achieve]
A clear, concise single purpose statement of the overall outcome to be achieved. In all
survival situations the mission statement is - To Stay Alive.
EXECUTION [what you are going to do in order to achieve the mission]
Should contain details of your best course of action and how the mission will be
accomplished. It must include a general outline together with details of roles, tasks, methods,
boundaries and special equipment. If possible people in a survival situation should remain
with their vehicle or aircraft and if on foot establish a camp as soon as practicable. If in a
group task leaders should be elected and teams nominated for each of the following
requirements -
Water
Develop a control and distribution plan for any available water and discuss and implement
water procurement strategies and methods to be used.
Shelter
Conduct an audit of useable items available; nominate a shelter-building team to detennine
the type of shelter or shelters required and methods of construction.
Warmth
Identify ways of staying wann and develop strategies and procedures to cope. Nominate a
team responsible for gathering fuel, identifying any available accelerants and identify suitable
fire lighting methods.
Food
Develop a control and rationing plan of available food and discuss and implement food
procurement strategies and methods.
Direction
Locate north and construct an earth compass.
Location
Locate your position relative to identifiable landmarks and easily recognisable features and
set boundaries for movement outside the camp area.
Rescue Signals
If in a group elect a task leader, develop rescue strategies, build and maintain rescue signals
and implement the 24 hour manning of fires and emergency signals.
Co-ordinating Instructions
Details common to all members of the group providing a standard by which elected leaders
can maintain control and group members maintain focus. They include details of timings,
movement, navigation and actions-on for injuries, lost persons and death[s],
ADMINISTRATION & LOGISTICS [what is needed and what is available]
Details of food and water available along with distribution and consumption arrangements.
Dress standards and equipment requirements should be detailed.
COMMAND & COMMUNICATIONS [who is in charge and details of signalling]
If in a group the elected group leader and those in charge of the various tasks must be known
and agreed to by all. The agenda for group meetings should be set along with timings for task
completion. Those responsible for manning emergency signals and fires should be nominated.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
PERSONAL SURVIVAL KIT
This personal survival kit has been designed to assist in providing the four basic requirements
for survival. Your kit should fit on your belt and be carried with you at all times especially
when away from your base camp or vehicle. Belts should be nylon with quick-release buckles
and be as long as practicable.
Survival Equipment
• Survival belt - Can be used for first-aid slings, carrying items and securing shelters.
• Water bottle - Minimum capacity 1 litre filled with drinking water.
• Survival knife - A general-purpose knife with a 15 cm blade suitable for cutting,
slicing, skinning, hacking, chopping, digging and hammering is recommended. A lock-
back folder with an 8cm blade is a good lightweight alternative.
• Survival tool - Multi-tool with pliers, wire cutters, crimpers, knife blades, ruler, can
opener, bottle opener, small/medium/large screwdrivers, Phillips head screwdriver,
metal file, wood saw and awl is recommended.
Survival Kit
• Plastic bags - Ground sheet, raincoat, shelters, carry bags and water collection.
• Foil rescue blanket - Shelter, warmth, water collection and signalling aid
• Nylon cord - Shelter building, weapons, traps and snares.
• Fishing gear - Fishing, traps and snares.
• Scalpel blade - Cutting and slicing.
• Elastic rubber tubing - Slingshot, gidgee, drinking straw, traps and snares
• Canvas tape - First aid, shelter building and repairs to gear.
• Netting - Fishing, traps and snares, carry bag.
• Signalling mirror - Signalling aid.
• Waterproof matches - Firelighting and signalling.
• Water purifying tablets - Water purification.
• Barley sugar - Energy food source.
• Notepaper and pencil - Keep diary, record plan and write messages.
VEHICLE/AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY PA CK
This emergency pack is designed to provide each person with the basic requirements for
survival for the three-day period following a vehicle breakdown or air emergency. There
should be one pack carried for each person. It should be carried in your vehicle or aircraft at
all times and be easy to access in the event of an emergency.
Emergency Pack [per person]
• Water bottles rigid or collapsible - Complete with 4 litres of drinking water.
• Foil rescue blanket - Shelter, warmth, water collection and signalling aid.
• Food - 6 ready-to-eat meals in cans [or other].
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Water
THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO SURVIVAL
In Western Australia people do die after becoming lost or having their vehicle break down in
the remote and arid areas of the state. During the period from 1983 to 1999 forty-three people
have perished due to excessive heat, thirst and exposure. Many of these deaths occurred
because the individuals did not carry out good survival techniques.
The average person can expect to survive without water for three to five days [depending on
the climate and what they try to do]. Some instances show individuals have perished within
hours of becoming lost.
You must conserve any water you have, including that already in your body. Water is required
to replace fluid that is lost, so by conserving body fluid you require less water intake.
Time frame for survival
There have been cases where, in an ambient temperature of 38°C survivors have stayed in the
shade and followed good survival principles and survived for the following periods when in
possession of the nominated amount of water. The table below is included to highlight the
importance your actions may have on your time frame for survival.
No water
1 litre
2 litres
5 litres
1 1 litres
3-5 days
51/2 days
6 days
7 days
9 days
How fluid is lost from the body
Fluid is lost from the body by perspiring, breathing, urinating, vomiting, crying and talking.
Perspiring
Perspiration is a mixture of salt and water with the amount of salt varying from person to
person. It is a nonnal bodily process that has a cooling effect as moisture evaporates from the
skin surface. A person resting in the shade when the temperature is 35°C would lose about 2
litres of fluid in a 24-hour period. It is important to keep activity down to a minimum and
conserve existing body fluids as any rise in body temperature can see losses in excess of 1
litre of fluid per hour resulting in dehydration.
Urinating
Is also a nonnal bodily process and cannot be prevented. However, it should be held as long
as possible to slow down this fluid loss from the body. On no account drink urine unless it has
been distilled. You could apply it to the skin surface with a sponge, in the hope that it will
reduce your body temperature.
Vomiting
Can generally be avoided by leaving bad or harmful food well alone.
Crying
Should also be avoided, but it may be difficult to convince a child of this.
When to consume water in a survival situation
You should always drink to replace fluids lost from your body however if you are unable to
locate or procure water and are limited to the water in your survival kit it should be consumed
in small sips to replace some of the fluid lost to your system. This water will increase your
time frame for survival by up to half a day.
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METHODS OF WATER PROCUREMENT
Your first efforts in a survival situation should be directed towards establishing a good water
supply. Initially you should look for ground water using the following methods.
Creek beds
Are easily discernible in dry areas because of the relatively green vegetation and taller trees
following the course of the creek. Unless there has been recent rain in the area the creek bed
will probably be quite dry. You may be lucky enough to locate damp sand or mud at the
bends of the creek or by digging in the creek bed at a likely spot. Water can be extracted from
the damp sand or mud by soaking a rag in soil and wringing out the water into a container.
Rock Formations
If there is any water seepage from the ground, it is usually to be found near rock fonnations,
where the country is rugged and undulating. It may also be found in some apparently dry
areas. Rocky areas are ideal for rain catchments. Rain soaks very quickly into the soil,
whereas it can lie in pools on a rocky surface for some time.
Salt Lakes
After rain has fallen, the top 3mm of a salt lake is fresh water. It can be siphoned off by using
a grass straw or tubing from your survival kit.
Windmills
These have been erected on most farms and stations throughout the state at such locations as
wells, dams and soaks. These can be seen from a long distance and usually have animal tracks
leading to them. Check the water at these mills has not gone salty.
Animal Trails
Animals need water the same as humans and they will travel great distances regularly each
day, leaving trails to the water source. Where a large number of trails converge together, it
would indicate that the water was not far distant.
Water seepage
Sometimes water can be found close to the surface in natural springs and soaks or at the base
of cliffs and rock-piles where vegetation appears to be thriving.
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Tree Roots
In the early morning before the heat of the day, the roots from trees such as the boab,
kurrajong, wattle and some gums can be cut into short lengths, stood end-on with their
thickest ends down in a container allowing the fluid to drain. It is best to use roots that are
easily obtained with a minimum of effort. The ideal location for this is in creek beds and
washouts where parts of the roots are already exposed or near the surface.
Certain Trees
Some trees such as the boab, desert-oak, she-oak and paperbark store water. Water will collect
in the crevices of some of these trees after rain, in blisters under the bark in others such as the
paperbark and in the sapwood under the bark of the boab.
It is preferable to use a length of rubber tubing to siphon water from crevices and to extract
the water from blisters and under bark by cutting a ‘V’ through the bark and collecting the
escaping water in a container.
Note:
Chewing the sapwood of trees is not recommended as it may aggravate thirst.
Coastal Water Sources
You can obtain drinking water by digging high up on the beach above the tidemark or behind
the first sand hills. It tastes brackish and should only be used in small quantities.
Dew
The collection is tedious, but of some value in heavy grassland. Tie clumps of grass or cloth
around ankles and walk around in dew-drenched grass at dusk or dawn. Squeeze moisture into
a container and repeat. If you have a vehicle, wipe down the vehicle with a cloth and collect
the dew in a container. You can also dig ‘dew holes’ and line them with plastic to collect the
dew.
Foliage Bags
If there are no large trees in the area you can break up clumps of grass or small bushes and
place them inside the bag, the same effect will take place as in transpiration. Make sure you
follow the guidelines and provide a sump and remember to replace the foliage at regular
intervals when water production is reduced.
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Transpiration Method
Water can be obtained by placing a clear plastic bag over the leafy branch of a non-poisonous
tree [taste-test the foliage] and securing the bag with tape at the end of the branch. Seal any
holes with tape, band-aids, etc. The action of the sun on the plastic will cause water to be
drawn from the leaves and run to the lowest part of the bag. Do not disturb the bag to collect
the water, simply cut a small hole in the bag then reseal it. The leaves will continue to
produce water as the roots draw it from the ground.
The transpiration method
The water should be drained off every two hours and stored. Tests indicate that if this is not
done the leaves stop producing water. Probably the heavy concentration of moisture-laden air
reduces the effectiveness of the sun. Ensure these bags receive maximum sunshine at all
times. Exposed roots can be tested for water content prior to bagging the tree. Soft pulpy roots
will yield the greatest amount of liquid for less effort.
Note:
A piece of cord can be tied around the bottom of the bag to form a sump and will stop
sticks, leaves and insects from contaminating the water or blocking the tapping hole. It
will also stop alkalines leaching from the foliage into the sump.
The Desert Still
Dig a hole approximately lmx lmx 60cm deep, line the hole with non-poisonous vegetation
and place a container in the centre with a piece of rubber tubing leading from the container
out of the hole for use as a drinking straw. Cover the hole with a clear plastic sheet and seal
around the edges with soil from the hole. The plastic sheet should be weighted with a stone
placed in the centre so it forms an inverted cone to allow condensed water to run into the
centre on the underside of the plastic and drip into the container.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
The desert still method will work without the drinking straw, however to collect the water the
edges of the plastic must be lifted allowing moisture-laden air to escape. The foliage will need
to be replaced when water production falls off. Care should be taken that the plastic sheet
does not touch the foliage as this will prevent the condensed water from running into the
container. Additional fluid such as salt water from salt lakes, urine, etc. can be added to the
hole.
Note:
This method while efficient has the disadvantage of requiring a lot of effort and
subsequent loss of fluid from the body through perspiration and therefore is not
recommended in areas where the transpiration bag can be used.
Distilling Sea Water
If only salt water is available a distilling plant can be made. You will have to improvise and
use containers that can be found or that you may have. First you require a container of
seawater and material to seal the container to prevent steam from escaping. Push one end of
the tubing or rubber hose through this seal material and check to see that the seal remains
intact while blowing into the loose end of the tubing. Place the container onto a fire and bring
to the boil. Steam will be forced through the tube where it condenses and fresh water will drip
from the end, into another container.
Another method is to simply bring water to the boil and catch as much steam as possible on a
piece of cloth and then ring it out. Although this method works, it is not the most efficient.
You must remember that the steam is the fresh water and therefore you must trap the steam to
get fresh water. Any improvised method will do even if you place an open container on the
fire and bring it to the boil, and then arrange a small plastic ‘tent’ on top of it. The steam will
strike the tent, condense and run down to your container or containers.
Note:
Alfoil or similar would make a seal around the container by folding it into a cone shape
with the tubing attached to the small end of the cone and placing the large end around
the container, secure ends of cone with wire to make the seal. Run the tubing through
a cooling agent [water].
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WA TER PURIFICA TION
You must always ensure that the water you drink will not cause internal infection as this will
lead to further loss of fluid. You must purify any natural water that you drink by using a water
filtration device, adding sterilization tablets or by boiling it.
Note:
Salt water should never be drunk unless distilled.
Clarification of water
The water you drink should be as clear as possible. It can be left for twelve hours to settle or
strained to remove the suspended matter. A good method of doing this is to make an
improvised filter from the leg of a pair of trousers or a shirtsleeve. Into this place fine sand up
to one third the length of the filter, charcoal for the next third and fill to the top with gravel,
small stones, etc. Hang the filter in a tree or similar and pour in the muddy water. It will take a
little time but clarified water will begin to seep through the filter and drip into a container
placed underneath.
Sterilisation of water
Because the water is clear does not mean that it has no bacteria in it. To make sure of this you
must sterilise any natural water that you drink. To sterilise water you can use several methods;
the recommended method is to put in sterilisation tablets from your survival kit. The
alternatives would be to boil the water or to use other chemicals that will neutralise any
bacteria such as condies crystals or iodine from your first-aid kit.
Portable Water Filters
These are designed for the world’s diverse water conditions and usually combine a ceramic
filter with activated carbon granules. Worldwide studies have shown, that bacteria
accumulates in every activated carbon filter, which is why manufactures now put the ceramic
filter after the carbon filter thus eliminating not only micro-organisms such as Giardia,
Cryptosporidium, Salmonella, E-Coli and Cholera, but also chemicals such as chlorine and
pesticides. Most units do not de-salinate salt water, you should check this with your supplier
when purchasing.
To operate the unit, the intake hose is suspended in the untreated water. The filter is held
vertically and pumped until purified water begins to flow from the outlet. As bacteria and
particles of dirt become trapped on the surface of the ceramic filter pumping will require
greater effort. The filter should then be cleaned and not forced.
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Shelter
Extremes of heat and cold are the enemies of human survival and both these qualities are
found in inland arid regions where very hot days can be followed by cold nights. During the
period from 1983 to 1999 fifteen people died due to excessive heat and thirteen due to
excessive cold in Western Australia.
A shelter will provide you with protection from the elements, insects and animals. It is also a
big psychological boost that will help you feel that you are managing. Determine what type of
shelter you require and plan accordingly.
While building your shelter remember that keeping in the shade and moving as little as
possible in the heat of the day can avoid heat stroke and loss of body fluid.
Using Vehicles as Shelter
Vehicles are a source of shelter as they provide protection from the sun, rain and prevailing
weather during the day and the cold air at night. Tarpaulins, blankets or branches can be used
to keep direct sun from the vehicle and interior linings, doors, boot lids and bonnets can also
be removed.
Foil Rescue Blanket
Space and/or rescue bla nk ets are cheap, lightweight and an ideal item to assist in providing
shelter. The reflective surface reflects the sun's rays from the person sheltering underneath.
Natural Shelter
If nothing else is to hand you will have to use bush materials, when constructing a shelter you
should consider the following points -
• Type of protection required.
• Availability of materials.
• Proximity of water.
• Close to your emergency signals.
When you begin construction, use larger branches for your basic frame as you will find a roof
fairly heavy when it is wet and they will have to support it. Branches can be tied together
using vines, strips of bark or sword grass. If you are near your vehicle, strip out wires to use
for this.
Remember that your ability to improvise and see alternate uses for items that you may have
available to you could mean the difference between life and death.
TYPES OF SHELTERS
Any survival situation will involve the construction of some fonn of shelter from the
elements.
The need for shelter and the type of shelter should be identified in your survival situation
appreciation. It is important that you base any decision to build a shelter on your survival
plan.
Note:
Be careful not to use items from your survival kit, which might have a higher priority of
use.
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Building shelters
Your shelter will depend largely on what is available to use and what the conditions are.
Common sense will guide you but be warned, a shelter takes a good deal longer to build than
one imagines. If you can find something that will provide a part of a shelter such as a hollow
log, then use it as the basis of your shelter, this will save time and energy.
Some fairly simple types of shelter, which you can build, with a minimum of effort include
the following -
The aboriginal shelter
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Using a tarpaulin for shelter
A tarpaulin can be a valuable aid to providing shelter from the elements as there is no limit to
the uses it can be put to. Remember that tarpaulins today are fairly lightweight and may be
dropped to you by rescue aircraft.
In hot conditions it can be used solely as a base to protect from radiated ground heat when
used in conjunction with any shelter designed to provide shade. Tarpaulins can also be used in
hot conditions to provide deep-shade as the roof of a large A-frame shelter.
In wet, windy conditions they can be used to provide shelter using one end as a base and then
using the remainder of the tarpaulin to provide an outer skin for waterproofing or simply
using as a large A-frame with the edges pegged down or held in place using rocks or logs.
Note:
Tarpaulins need not be used on their own as shelter but can be utilised to supply
additions and improvisations to other forms of shelter that you may decide to build.
Roofing
If your vehicle is handy, you can pull out the head lining to use to make a waterproof roof. If
not, then blankets, sleeping bags or even spare clothes can be used.
Thatching
Waterproofing and shade can be provided using a technique called thatching. This can be
done by using materials such as palm fronds, leafy branches, tufts of long grass, reeds, sedges
and/or long stalked ferns. A good method to employ is called “tuft thatching†using long,
pliable tufts of grass, reeds or sedges. These are better used when dry or partly dry as they
will not shrink and fall apart in windy conditions. To make a “tuft thatch†-
1 . Gather the material into small sheaves or handfuls.
2. Bend the end of each sheaf over a batten or long stick.
3. Twist a few strands of the material around the sheaf a few times and push it through
the bunched up material to hold the sheaf together.
4. Completed “tufts†are then slid along the batten to make a neat thatch.
5. Each completed batten is then lashed to the frame to provide a wall or roof as required
when used to overlap completed battens.
Use Of Debris
Once you have constructed the skeletal structure for your shelter in cold or wet weather you
should consider the use of debris for protection and insulation. Over the framework heap a
pile of light, soft debris. Leaves, grasses, brush, or any type of leaf litter will do.
The debris should eventually form a large dome shaped mound some 60cm thick over the
structure. Remember the thicker the pile the better the insulation and the steeper the pitch the
better the rain protection. On top of the debris add some bark slabs or moss to form a
protective waterproof layer and to assist in keeping it together.
Low debris shelters built using this method are sometimes called “oven sheltersâ€.
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Warmth
In Western Australia in the period from 1983 to 1999, thirteen people died due to excessive
cold. Many of these deaths could have been prevented had the individuals possessed the
resources and skills to light a fire.
FIRELIGHTING WITHOUT MATCHES
Fire cooks, warms, sterilises and acts as a signal if necessary. To start a fire requires an
understanding of combustion. For combustion to occur requires the presence of fuel, heat and
oxygen. Fuel consists of dry vegetable matter, dry animal manure, reactive chemicals,
kindling and timber. Heat can be provided by friction, chemical reaction, spark or
magnification. Remember that oxygen is the essential ingredient to produce flame from heat
and fuel.
Always carry some form of fire starter with you on trips such as waterproof matches or
lighter. If you do not have these then your skills should include at least one of the following
methods. Remember that traditional methods of fire lighting require a high degree of patience
and skill and should be learned and practised in a training environment.
Vehicle Method
Your vehicle has probably been fitted with a cigarette lighter. Use this to ignite a petrol
soaked rag [outside the car]. If you do not have a lighter then remove the battery from the
vehicle, pull out two wires from the vehicle and attach these to the tenninals of your battery
and run them away to the ground. When the ends are touched together they will spark and
ignite tinder.
Note:
The gas produced by a battery is highly volatile and if exposed to a spark could cause
an explosion. Make sure the fire is started away from the battery.
Torch Battery Method
A fire can be started by holding very fine steel wool from your tool kit over the negative
terminals of a 6-volt torch battery and brushing it against the positive tenninal. The sparks
produced should ignite the steel wool [make sure you have tinder ready].
Chemical Method
Condies Crystals [carried in some survival and/or first aid kits] can be used to start a fire by
mixing in equal amounts with sugar [barley sugar can be used] and grinding them with the flat
of a knife blade. The result is a brief intense flame.
Note:
Make sure that you have tinder prepared and ready when lighting fires.
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The Fire - Bow Method
This method is used by many indigenous people around the world. To use the fire-bow take a
turn around the drill with the nylon cord attached to the bow [if you have used green timber
for a bow the tension will be applied automatically, otherwise use your fingers to hold it
tight]. Place the tip of the drill into the base starting groove and hold the headstock onto the
top of the drill. Push and pull the bow to rotate the drill. The over-heated shavings [punk] will
fall through the groove in the base onto the tinder. The small ember, which will form, should
be held in the tinder and blown until it ignites.
The Bow - can be any branch of a tree and should be approximately 45cm to 60cm.
The Head Stock - is a piece of hardwood to hold the top of the drill and allow it to rotate.
The Base - is a softer piece of dry wood flattened top and bottom so it will sit on the ground
to allow the drill to start. A small groove is cut into the side of the base directly beside where
the drill is to be used to allow the shavings or punk to fall onto the tinder.
The Drill - consists of a piece of dry wood of soft texture 30 - 40cm long and as straight as
possible. The diameter should be 1.5cm to 2cm, the drill sharpened to a point at both ends to
fit into the starting groove of both the base and head stock.
Note:
One of the better types of wood to use for both the drill and base is the lower wooden
portion of the flower stalk from the balga plant.
The Lens Method
Strong sunlight focused through a lens can produce enough heat to ignite tinder. The lens can
come from a magnifying glass [including the base of some compasses], binoculars, camera or
telescopic sights from firearms.
Flint, Steel and Magnesium Blocks
Flint is a stone which if struck with a piece of steel [knife] produces sparks, which will ignite
tinder. Magnesium blocks [flint attached] are available commercially for inclusion in survival
kits as emergency firelighters.
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Food
LIVING OFF THE LAND
Although food is not as important as the other three requirements for survival it is necessary
for a prolonged survival situation. Any available foods should be eaten sparingly, keeping in
mind that it is better to have one meal a day than to nibble small amounts.
The average healthy adult can live for several weeks without food so this will give ample time
to locate nourishment from natural sources if necessary.
Food sources
Sources of food available to survivors include; animals, bird life, marine life, insects, grubs
and plant life.
In considering natural sources of food, there are some important points to remember
• Most animals, bird and plant life are protected and should only be used for food
sources in emergencies. Should it be necessary only kill what is needed for your
survival.
• The body needs fluid to digest food, so foods with a high water content should be
considered before others. If no water at all is available, then food should be avoided,
particularly meat, which requires more fluid to digest than vegetation.
• You do not need to be a skilled hunter to obtain food in the bush. Even without
weapons of any description enough lizards, insects and grubs can be found to keep a
person alive for several days simply by looking under rocks and dead branches, tree
stumps and anthills.
• If possible all foods should be cleaned carefully by washing, then cooked, thus
lessening the chances of any infection or stomach upsets.
• Generally bush food is tough, fibrous, unpalatable, and to some, even nauseating;
nevertheless it is food.
THE FOOD PREFERENTIAL
Most people when forced to live off the land will find it easier to try to eat food that reminds
them of their nonnal diet at home. For this reason it is handy to know that our food
preferences can be divided into three classes. These are -
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Animals and Reptiles
The presence of any anirnal or bird life in an area is evident by tracks, droppings and traces of
fur or feathers. If you have been lucky enough to find a waterhole used by animals it is a
simple matter to sit under cover, down-wind from the water source and either shoot or snare
the animals as they come to water.
Even by walking through the bush quietly during the day it is possible to surprise sleeping
animals in creek beds, under shady trees and amongst rocky outcrops.
Some of the most likely animals seen in the bush include kangaroos, small marsupials, wild
goats, donkeys, pigs, rabbits, snakes, lizards, frogs, sheep and cattle.
Some imagination and bushcraft skills are needed in knowing where to look, how to recognise
tracks and how to snare the faster moving animals.
SNARING ANIMALS
Without a firearm or manufactured animal trap most animals can be snared with a wire noose
placed in a convenient position such as the entrance to a hole or above an animal path
between two trees.
The noose should slide freely and the other end of the wire should be anchored securely to a
tree or post. As the animal passes through, the noose tightens around the neck quickly killing
it as it tries to pull free. This type of trap is generally successful at night when the anirnal
cannot see the snare. Care should be taken not to leave any human smell on the wire.
Owing to the cruel nature of the snare, it should only be used when other methods fail.
If setting a snare look for signs of fur around a tree's base or signs along a fence line to
indicate where an animal has passed through. Animals will return to the same place to sleep
and will continue to negotiate fences at the same spot.
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The reef knot snare
The possum snare
The pit trap
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The toggle stick release snare
The toggle stick deadfall
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The figure four deadfall
Note:
Remember traps and snares are illegal in Western Australia and should only be used
in survival situations when your life is in danger.
Bird Life
Ground feeding birds can be trapped by placing grass or other bait under a cage made from
wire netting or green sticks woven together. The cage is propped up with a stick that is pulled
out by a hidden observer tugging a string as the bird walks under the cage. The cage falls,
trapping the bird.
A fishing line can also be used successfully. Bait the hook with an insect, bread, or other
edible matter; tie the line to a tree or stick where the birds frequent.
Birds are rather difficult to shoot or trap because of their flighty nature but you may be lucky
enough to locate a nest, either on the ground or in the trees, containing eggs or young.
Most birds try to confuse intruders by flying away from their nest at the approach of any
danger. This has the effect of leading the intruder in the wrong direction, thus protecting the
eggs or young.
Emus are very common in outback areas and can be enticed towards bright objects waved by
a person hiding behind a bush. As the bird's inquisitive nature leads it within metres of the
object, the person can then step out and kill the bird with a suitable weapon.
When shooting or trapping, frequent a water source if possible. Stealth, not speed, is of great
importance when shooting and patience at a water hole at dawn or dusk is usually rewarded.
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Reptiles
All reptiles are edible including venomous snakes [remove the head and portion of the neck to
remove the venom glands]. Goannas being reptiles are fatty and oily so if you have to eat
these, overcook them. Remember, care must be taken when catching venomous snakes and
other reptiles, as their bite can be fatal or lead to infection.
Note:
In the period from 1980 to 2001 nine deaths have been attributed to snakebite in
Western Australia.
Marine Life
Fish are a valuable food source containing protein, vitamins and fats. All freshwater fish are
edible. It takes skill to catch fish but by considering their feeding habits and following some
simple methods you can be successful.
Where to fish
Fish frequent those places in the water where they are most comfortable and where they can
feed. The ambient temperature of the area will affect these places. You should remember -
• If it is hot and the water is low they will seek shaded water and deep pools. In lakes
they will retreat to deep water.
• In cold weather they will choose a shallow place where the sun warms the water and in
lakes they will keep to the edges where the water is warmer.
• If the river is in flood they will seek slack water generally on the inside of bends or in
small tributaries feeding into the main stream where the water may not be so turbulent.
• Fish and marine life like to shelter under banks or below rocks and submerged logs.
The Forked Fishing Spear
Fish can also be speared using a forked fishing spear. These are more effective than a single
pointed spear at holding a speared fish and are made from a green sapling, split at one end and
carved into two sharp prongs complete with inward pointing barbs. Before carving separate
the prongs with a wooden wedge then lash the two prongs together using cord from your
survival kit. After carving the spear can be hardened over a fire.
The Forked Fishing Spear
Tidal Fish Traps
Fish can also be trapped near the water's edge by using a fence of upright sticks or rocks
pushed into the sand close together and left in place. This type of fish trap is used by
fishermen in tropical areas with extreme tides where netting is used in place of the sticks. The
fish are trapped by the mesh of sticks or rocks and easily removed when the tide goes out.
Gathering Shellfish
A method of gathering seafood on the coast is by digging in the sand or turning over rocks for
shellfish at low tide. This is how some fishermen collect bait for line fishing.
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The Basket Trap
Freshwater crustaceans [marron, etc] can be caught in simple basket traps baited with animal
entrails or decayed meat and left in position. They should be fitted with a funnel at one end
and tied together at the other. It is important they be weighted down, staked in position or tied
to the bank to ensure they are still there when you check them. To make a basket trap -
1. Cut a bundle of green sticks lm in length and 1cm in diameter and mark out a circle
on the ground the size of the end of the trap.
2. Make holes in the ground around the circle with a stick every 4cm and stand a stick
from your bundle in each hole.
3. Weave around the bottom of the trap three times with a long piece of thin green stick
and tie off with cord to keep it together.
4. Tie the top of the trap together with a piece of cord to fonn a cone shape.
5. Weave a length of thin green stick around the trap basket fashion.
6. Make a smaller similar cone with the narrow end open and place it inverted inside the
large cone to form a lid and entry.
The Marron Snare
A traditional method of catching marron is to tie a small piece of meat to a length of cord or
fishing line and throw it a metre or two into the water. In clear water you will see the marron
coming to the meat. Once they take the meat they will hang on stubbornly and can be drawn
to the edge of the water and lifted out onto the bank. They can also be caught by using a pole
with a running loop of snare wire tied to the end and placing it over the marron from behind
and dragging them out of the water.
Insects
Insects and their larvae are often overlooked as a source of food even though they are
widespread, a good source of nourishment, have a high food value, high fluid content and are
easy to obtain. Fried tennites and ant larvae for instance are a rich source of food.
In some overseas countries, maggots, grasshoppers and termites form part of the natural diet.
Termites can be obtained by picking them up on the end of a wet fingertip after breaking open
anthills or dead wood. The taste of termites and ant eggs is not offensive.
The insect larvae known as the hardy or witchetty grub is obtained by breaking open dead
trees and balga stumps after examining for the characteristic borer holes in the south-west and
by digging up the surface roots of the Witchetty Bush [acacia kempeana] in the central desert
area. They live on the dissolved sugars from the sap of trees, are highly nutritious and are high
in calcium. The entrails should be removed by holding the head in one hand and the tail in the
other then pulling. Other insect larvae may also be present and can be eaten if there is no
offensive smell or taste.
Honey ants can be collected near the base and on the branches of trees in tropical areas. The
fluid from their abdomens is good nourishment as is honey from wild bees if you are lucky
enough to locate any.
Note:
Do not eat furry grubs or grubs with black showing through the skin and remember
that while snails and slugs can be eaten they are an unlikely source of food as they
favour wetter areas and there would probably be better alternate food available.
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ANIMAL BUTCHERY
Most animals can be eaten although most of us have a preference for herbivorous animals
such as cattle sheep, pigs, horses, rabbits and poultry. There is no reason however, that you
cannot eat vermin in a survival situation.
Signs Of Disease
Check all animals for disease, the body should look well fed and be clean smelling. If in
doubt a small piece of meat can be boiled in a covered pot, when the water is boiling if the
vapours have a bad smell you should not eat the meat.
Do not eat birds when the flesh is flabby, purple, a green discoloration around the neck, stiff
feet, collapsed eyes or a sour smell present. If you can pull out a rabbit’s fur, if its eyes are
enlarged and dull or its body cavity slimy it should not be eaten.
PREPARATION & COOKING OF GAME
The size and type of animal will detennine your method of preparation for cooking.
Large Animals
Should have the throat cut to ’bleed’ the carcass, hung up by the hind legs, the gut contents,
head, and skin removed then cut into joints.
In a survival situation meat can be cooked by boiling, frying, grilling, baking or steaming
depending on what resources are available.
Kangaroo
Kangaroo meat is very low in fat and very high in protein and iron. Because of it’s low fat
content it tends to dry out quickly and must be cooked carefully. Cook it quickly by grilling
over an open fire as steaks or kebabs.
Emu
Emu meat is very low in fat and high in protein, iron and vitamin C. It is red in colour and
similar in texture to lean beef. The tenderness and texture of the meat enables it to be prepared
in many ways. It is best cut into thin steaks and lightly grilled over an open fire.
Rabbits
Should be skinned, gutted and have the head and feet removed. They are best cooked by
inserting a green stick in the body cavity and turning them over hot coals.
Snakes
Should have the head, skin and stomach removed and be cut into pieces. The meat is best
grilled over hot coals.
Lizards
Are prepared simply by removing the head and gut contents. They are best grilled over hot
coals with the skin left on.
Birds
Should be bled as soon as possible after death and have the head, feathers and the intestines
removed. Birds can be cooked by wrapping them in foil from your survival kit, clay, large
leaves or paperbark and placing them in the coals.
Fish
Fish should have the intestines removed and be cooked with the scales and skin on. They can
be wrapped in foil from your survival kit, bark, leaves, mud or clay and cooked in coals.
When cooked the flesh can be accessed by peeling away the wrapping and skin.
Note:
Remember to wash all meat of blood before cooking, make sure that you wash all
blood and meat from your hands after handling dead animals.
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PRESERVING MEAT
The most popular methods used to preserve meat in a survival situation are by drying or
smoking. It must be remembered that only fresh meat should be used to ensure protection
against infection.
Drying meat
Drying meat is a good method for preserving it if you have more than you can eat
immediately. It is also advantageous if it has to be eaten over a period while travelling on foot
as the weight of the meat is reduced by approximately 70%. This is because the water content
of the meat is removed in the drying process leaving behind the tissue containing protein and
nutrients. Dried meat cut with the grain is known as ‘biltong’ and across the grain as ‘jerky’.
The process for drying meat is -
• Construct a simple tripod frame to hold the meat strips.
• Cut the meat into thin strips and remove all fat and gristle as the fat will not dry and
will encourage the growth of bacteria. The thinner the strips the faster water will be
extracted. It is best to cut a small hole in one end of each strip of meat and pass a stick
through the hole rather than folding the strips over the stick as this provides an area on
the underside of the meat that will not dry and will harbour bacteria.
• Hang the strips in a sunny, breezy spot for 2-3 days to sun-dry it or place it alongside a
slow burning fire to smoke it until the meat goes hard to the touch and dark in colour.
When meat is smoked the smoke will solidify the protein content of the meat and stop
decomposition and seal in any flavour.
• When smoking meat do not let the fire produce flames and remember that the best way
to produce smoke is to use sawdust, wood chips or crushed bark as fuel for your fire.
• During the day you will need to keep flies, insects and scavengers such as birds,
goannas, dogs, cats and rodents away from the meat. It is a good point to remember
that any scavengers attracted to the drying or smoking meat may also be a source of
food to be trapped or killed.
• At night all the meat strips should be taken off the drying-frame and wrapped in
material to protect them from dew and moisture.
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EDIBLE PLANTS
A vast number of plants that can provide food in an emergency occur naturally in Western
Australia. However, many of them are hard to identify without expert help and many more
have sharp or tangy juices that discourage people who cautiously taste them. It is
recommended that when travelling around the state you should source information on edible
and poisonous plants from locals, resident experts and local authorities relevant to their area.
PLANTS TO AVOID
The seeds of many of the native pea and bean family are highly poisonous. It is best to avoid
these native plants even though garden varieties are good to eat. After all, if you are already
working hard at surviving, you do not want to add illness to your misfortunes.
You should also avoid the palm-like plants. Zamia palm fruits contain poisons and so do the
young shoots. Unless you are absolutely certain of the identity of the palms that you are about
to eat they are best left alone.
Fungi are another group of plants best avoided. Although many of the fungi that are found in
Western Australia can be eaten they provide little nourishment and there is no rule to
eliminate the deadly species.
THE TASTE TEST FOR PLANT EDIBILITY
Should you find vegetation that you think is edible you must carry out the taste test to reduce
the chance of eating something that will hann you.
Look
Does it look like something you can eat. Look for poison indicators such as prickles or milky
sap. Another indicator is any fruit that is divided into five divisions. Discussion with experts
will indicate peculiarities specific to particular regions.
Smell
Break open, crush it and smell it. Be wary of things that smell like almonds or peaches.
Touch
Rub on to a tender part of your body such as the inside of the wrists and wait approximately
20 minutes to see if a rash develops.
Taste
Rub on the inside of the lip and top of the tongue, testing for flavour and reaction. The plant
should be discarded as a food source if a sharp, stinging or burning sensation is present.
Eat
Eat a very small portion if all the above tests prove negative and wait for a few hours to see if
there are any reactions. If there is no reaction then you may eat a larger portion, continue to
do this until you are sure that even large quantities will not harm you.
Note:
Always carry out the taste test on anything that you cannot positively identify and
remember should the part you have tested prove to be inedible then do not discard it
as cooking may make it edible. If one part of a plant proves to be inedible then you
should be prepared to test the other parts [roots, leaves, etc].
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SOME COMMON TYPES OF EDIBLE VEGETATION
Banksias [banksia sp]
Flowers contain large amounts of sweet nectar that can be sucked from the flower or stirred in
water to make a refreshing sweet drink. This should be done early in the morning when dew is
present.
Balga [xanthorrhoea sp]
Has an edible white substance at the base of the green leaves, this is quite sweet when eaten
raw. The plant is killed when you remove this growing heart.
Berry Saltbush [rhagodia baccata]
A spreading shrub that less than two metres high with short, grey-green leaves that grows near
the coast with small edible red berries that are very sweet when ripe.
Bloodroot Yams [haemodorum sp]
The roots are eaten raw or mildly roasted. They are sweet, juicy and hot, somewhat
resembling a very mild onion in flavour but with considerable bite.
Boab [adansonia gregorii]
The nuts should be collected when mature but before they harden, the seeds and pith can be
eaten raw or soaked in water, they have a taste like dried condensed milk.
Bracken Fern [pteridium sp]
This and some other large ferns are edible while the green shoot is in the "fiddle head" stage.
Although they can be eaten raw, they are more palatable when cooked, the underground stems
although stringy are rich in starch and roast up well in the campfire.
Bush Tomato [solanum diversiflorum]
These grey coloured shrubs grow to about 50cm and have prickles on the stem and leaves, the
flowers are purple. The fruit when ripe are pale yellow with black seeds surrounded by pulp.
The fruit is cooked in ashes, the seeds removed and the flesh eaten.
Bulrush [typha sp]
These plants generally grow along the edges of lakes, swamps and large dams. The horizontal
stems are rich in starch but need pounding to separate this from the strong fibres running
through the plant.
Christmas Tree [nuytsia floribunda]
The young roots are edible and are peeled and eaten they have a moist brittle centre that tastes
like sugar. The flowers can be soaked in water to make a sweet refreshing drink and the gum
can be eaten.
Desert Raisin [solanum centrale]
The fruit is initially purple-green and is eaten raw when green-white to yellow-brown. When
dried it has the taste and appearance of a dried sultana and can be stored.
Emu Plums [podocarpus drouynianus]
A low shrub found in the southern forests yields a dark purple, edible fruit of good flavour.
The attached green "seed" should be discarded.
Figs [ficus sp]
Fig trees of one kind or another are found across much of Australia's inland, their glossy,
green leaves are very distinctive and the red, pulpy fruits are excellent eating.
Geebungs [persoonia sp]
These shrubs or small trees are found mainly in the south of the state, the pith from the small
fruits are edible and tastiest when collected from beneath the tree, the skin and seeds should
be spat out. These are also known by the unappetising name "snotty-gobbles".
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Desert Kurrajongs [brachychiton sp]
Identified by their boat shaped pods filled with shiny, yellow seeds. Use a stick to remove the
seeds as the small hairs surrounding them are irritating to the skin. The seeds should be
winnowed by pouring between two containers to allow the wind to carry away the prickly
hairs then pounded and roasted with a little water to make porridge or roasted until black and
then crushed and used like ground coffee to provide a drink.
Native Banana [leichardtia australis]
Is a vine with greyish leaves, tiny flowers and white, milky sap. Even though milky saps
usually indicate that poisons are present, these immature, large, greenish, pear shaped fruit
can be eaten raw or cooked, once ripe only the yellow seeds are edible.
Native Yam [dioscorea sp]
The tubers are edible and are roasted, pounded and then eaten.
Pigface [carpobrotus sp]
Succulent plants found in sandy areas of the state and near the coast. Although the water in
their fleshy leaves is a little salty it can be purified. When the petals drop off the flowers the
purple-red base is revealed and the juicy centre of seeds in a white pulp can be eaten.
Quandongs [santalum accuminatum]
Are well known for their round, wrinkled seeds the roasted kernel of which is edible and quite
nutritious. The bright red, outer flesh of the ripe fruits is also edible tasting somewhat like an
unripe apple. A related species, the Native Plum [santalum lanceolatum] bears a tasty, dark
purple fruit.
Ruby Saltbush [enchylaena tomentosa]
The edible fruit is berry-like, small, green or bright yellow turning red when ripe. They are
collected by shaking the branches over a container. The young leaves can be eaten after
boiling in two changes of water to remove bitter soluble salts.
Wandoo [eucalyptus wandoo]
The flowers produce abundant nectar, which can be collected by soaking the flowers in water
and then drinking the water.
Watercress [rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum]
Herbaceous perennial often found in fresh, flowing water. The leaves and stems can be eaten
raw or cooked as a vegetable.
Water Lilies [nymphaea sp]
Are among the water plants that have edible tubers or potato like growths at the base of the
stems, they taste best when roasted in the ashes of the campfire. The stems of the leaf and
flower of the giant water lily have the texture of celery and can be eaten raw.
Wattle [acacia sp]
The ripe seeds are ground and can be eaten raw, cooked as a damper or mixed with water into
a drink.
EDIBLE INSECT ACTIVITY ON PLANTS
Sugar Bread
The activity of insects on plants leaves a crusty white substance on gum leaves,
tasting crusty particles can be eaten or dissolved in water as a refreshing drink.
Mulga Apples
These are the result of an insect that burrows under the bark of Bloodwood and
Inside the galls are a small amount of fluid and an edible caterpillar.
These sweet
Mulga trees.
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CHAPTER 3
Direction Finding
If stranded it is best to stay with your vehicle or aircraft as searchers will find this easier to
locate than a lone person. When you have become isolated from a walking party however and
find yourself lost without a compass you will have to know how to navigate without map or
compass to proceed on your pre-set escape route to safety.
Sun Movement
The sun’s position north or south of the equator is called declination. It is furthest north on
June 21, crosses the equator on September 21, is farthest south on December 21 and re-
crosses the equator on it’s way north on March 21. Any east-west line indicated when the sun
crosses the equator on the 21 March and the 21 September will be accurate.
WATCH METHOD
To find north using your watch simply -
1 . Stand holding your wristwatch horizontal with the figure 12 pointing at the sun
2. Bisect the angle between the hour hand and the 12 O’clock position
3. The line will indicate north [approximately]
Note:
This method will not apply to areas north of the Tropic of Capricorn during the period
of the midsummer equinox for your area.
BUSHMAN’S METHOD
Early settlers often gained a rough estimate of south by remembering that kangaroos rested in
areas of shade during the heat of the day. They were aware of signs of disturbed earth where
the kangaroos scooped out a hollow in the shade of low bushes. As we are in the southern
hemisphere the shade areas were always on the southern side of the bushes.
Note:
This method is still applicable and may provide an easy method of direction finding in
some areas.
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HAND SPAN METHOD
The sun crosses the imaginary north/south line [meridian] every day at noon and there are 24
hours between crossings of the meridian. During this time the earth revolves through 360°. It
can therefore be said the sun travels from east to west at a speed of 15° per hour. To find
north simply note the time and plot the sun from its present position backward or forward as
the case may be to its noon position. The diagram below will give you a general indication of
measuring degrees using your hand span. Y ou can experiment with this method and increase
accuracy by measuring sun movement with your hand and then measuring it with a compass
for comparison.
THE SHADOW STICK
To use the shadow stick method -
1 . Push a stick vertically into the ground
2. Place a stone at the end of the shadow
3. After a wait of 20 minutes place another stone at the end of the shadow
4. A line drawn from the first stone through the second stone will be a west-east line
5. Stand facing the stick with your left foot between the stones and your right foot past
the stones on the line drawn and you will be looking north.
Note:
In midsummer in areas north of the Tropic of Capricorn the shadow stick will be
behind you.
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THE SOUTHERN CROSS METHOD - AT NIGHT
The Southern Cross can be used to indicate south at night by -
1 . Extending an imaginary line through the long axis
2. Locating the two pointers and bisecting them at right angles with another line.
3. Where these two imaginary lines meet drop a line straight down to the horizon
4. This will indicate south [approximately]
NA VIGA TING A T NIGHT WITHOUT A COMPASS
You will find it very easy to navigate using the stars, particularly in the more arid regions of
Western Australia.
You will need to establish where north or south is then draw a earth compass on the ground
by drawing a line on the ground indicating north - south, bisect this line with another line at
90°, this will show east and west. You now have your earth compass.
Once you decide in which direction to travel, you can stand on your makeshift compass and
face the direction you intend moving. Look for a bright star or better still, a group of stars that
are in the required direction and move towards them.
Try to select stars that are not right on the horizon as you will lose sight of these when
moving around trees.
Remember that stars move from east to west in the same manner as the sun and you will have
to allow for this at 15° per hour.
Note:
Stop periodically and check your direction by drawing your earth compass on the
ground again.
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CHAPTER 4
Emergency Procedures
In the interests of prior planning and preparation those who live, work or travel in the outback
of Western Australia should be prepared for any foreseeable emergency whether they are on
foot or in a vehicle. ‘Actions on’ should be planned and the knowledge and skill to carry them
out should be acquired through training.
A personal first aid kit and a personal survival kit should always be carried, notifications
should always be posted and safe practices must be a priority.
PROCEDURE IF LOST
If you do become lost, try to remain calm as panic will put you at a psychological
disadvantage, the situation is not as hopeless as you may think.
If by any chance you have taken the wrong track and do not know where it is going to lead
you, it is pointless going on any further. It would be safer to return the way you came by
retracing your tracks back to a point where you can establish your location.
Case histories reveal that most people, when lost push on blindly in a state of panic, hoping
that they might end up ‘somewhere’. In these cases their efforts either take them further away
from civilisation or around in circles. Do not under estimate the huge vastness and great
distances of our Western Australian outback.
In a vehicle
If in a vehicle stay with or near your vehicle as it is a source of shelter and water [provided
there are no chemical additives in the radiator]. Also it is easier for search parties to locate a
vehicle than to locate a solitary human wandering around somewhere in the bush.
If you have to leave your vehicle temporarily to search for food or water mark your trail on
the ground with sticks or stones so you can find your way back. Otherwise you may find it
hard to locate your vehicle once it is out of sight. Only walk in the cool part of the day to
minimise fluid loss and exposure to the sun.
On foot
If on foot once you decide you are lost consult your map and use it in conjunction with your
recollection of the country you have traversed to try to identify a feature.
You can retrace your route to your last known position, or you can make for higher ground in
an attempt to fix your position.
If you are operating with a pre-set escape route and all attempts to fix your position have
failed then you should proceed on the bearing to safety.
If none of the above options apply then you should stay where you are, set up camp and wait
for rescue.
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ELECTRONIC SAFETY AIDS
There are many aids available to the outback traveller and it is worth considering these when
planning for outback travel both on foot and by vehicle.
Radio Communications
For close range communication between vehicles a citizen band UHF or VHF radio may be
used, however for long-range radio communication a HF radio is essential, these can be hired
from communications suppliers at reasonable rates. Whilst travelling in the outback it is good
practice to set up a communication schedule with the Royal Flying Doctor Service and
contact them daily advising them who you are and where you are. Some HF radios also have
an emergency beacon to contact the RFDS fitted.
Satellite/Digital Telephone Communications
It is now possible to ensure telephone communications in the outback with the introduction of
a system of digital telephones that allow the user to call on his/her digital phone and be
connected to a satellite system with no time delay if in an area not covered by a digital
network. This system has a saturation system of satellites that download to ground stations
and ensure instantaneous voice communication with no time delay between sending and
receiving. The Royal Flying Doctor Service has a toll-free emergency Satellite Telephone
number that should be known and recorded as part of your trip plan.
Position Indicator Beacons [EPIRB]
There are several rescue instruments available for the purpose of signalling for assistance,
these include different types of rescue beacons. Travellers in isolated or outback areas should
seriously consider their use. They can be hired from commercial outlets.
Satellite Navigation Systems [GPS]
Global positioning systems are available in Western Australia for purchase or hire. These are
a hand held system that allow you to find your exact position. They also allow you to plan
routes and navigate by giving you a read out of your exact heading and speed over the ground.
Even though the cost may be a factor these units are of obvious value to off road travellers,
particularly when travelling through unfamiliar territory.
Note:
Due to the technical nature of global positioning systems, users are advised to ensure
they understand their operation fully. Map suppliers should be consulted to ensure
that maps used are compatible. Not all maps [particularly older ones] use the grid
system of reference used by GPS.
EMERGENCY SIGNALS
The following methods can be used to indicate your position.
Fires
A smoking fire will aid searchers, both in daylight hours and at night. Extreme care should be
taken when lighting signal fires as some have got out of hand to the extent of causing major
bush fires further endangering survivors and searchers.
Whistle Signals
Distress signal by lost party
three blasts together, regularly spaced
Searchers looking for lost party
one blast at regular intervals
Acknowledgement of distress signal
two blasts repeated regularly
Recall signal for search parties
four blasts
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Gun Shots and Torch Flashes
When using gunshots or torch flashes the signals are the same as whistle signals. Remember
that guns should be discharged into soft ground, never into the air.
Signalling Mirrors
Signalling mirrors can be improvised by removing wing and rear vision mirrors from
vehicles, using the mirror on orienteering compasses [if fitted], make-up kits or using foil
from survival kits if you do not have a survival mirror or heliograph.
Survival Signalling Mirrors
These are available commercially and are quite small at 7-5cm x 5cm, they are made of 5mm
laminated glass with a sighting hole containing a special reflectorised screen that directs a
beam of sunlight onto a target. They are operated by -
1 . Holding the mirror in one hand and directing sunlight onto your other hand.
2. Slowly bring the mirror up to eye level and look through the sighting hole. You will
see a bright light spot. This is the aim indicator.
3. Hold the mirror close to your eye and slowly turn and manipulate it so the bright light
spot [aim indicator] is on the target.
4. Even though no aircraft is in sight continue sweeping the horizon as mirror flashes can
be seen for many kilometres, even in hazy weather.
Ground to Air Code
This is a universal code used to communicate with rescue aircraft. The figures should be
approximately eight to nine metres in length and contrasting material such as rocks; logs or
brush should be used. Trenches in sand can also be used to throw a shadow.
Ground to air visual code for use by survivors
The ground to air code that should be used by survivors is as follows; If in doubt use
international symbol - ’SOS’
V - Require assistance
X - Require medical assistance
T - Proceeding in this direction
Y - Yes or affirmative
N - No or negative
Actions by Aircraft
• If your signals have been seen and understood the aircraft will rock from side to side
in daylight hours and flash landing or navigation lights twice at night.
• Lack of the above signals indicates that the message has not been understood
Rescue Helicopter
Never approach a helicopter on the ground. Position yourself in front but well away from the
helicopter, in view of the pilot and wait until approached by a crew-person.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
BUSHWALKING SAFETY
Route plans
All members of the group should have a copy of the route plan and should be aware of any
hazardous sections and ensure all maps are current and accurate
Leaders
If there is a leader appointed they should be competent in all skills required and assistant
leaders must be experienced enough to safely care for the party should something unforeseen
happen to the leader. Both should be conversant with the area.
Medical limitations
Prior to setting off it is essential that the leader of any group be made aware of any medical
condition or any limiting personal factors affecting any member of the group.
Actions-on
In the interests of safety ‘actions-on’ should be set for all foreseeable emergency situations
and all members of the group must know the agreed emergency procedures. It is a good idea
for an individual emergency procedure card to be printed and issued to each person.
Escape Routes
Escape routes should be set prior to departure and must be known and written down by all
members of the group.
Notifications
Notifications need to be posted prior to departure and cancelled on return. Police in the area of
the walk should be notified [it is good practice to discuss your plans with them].
Walking Formation
In the interest of group safety a system of walking in single file through the bush is
recommended rather than having the group walk scattered over a large area where should a
walker be separated from the group he will most likely not be missed until the group stops at
the end of the day.
If the group walks in an orderly line then there is less chance of an individual becoming
isolated.
Navigation tasks should be divided between group members and tasks interchanged regularly
in order to increase team spirit and skill practice. Roles within the bushwalking formation
should be -
Position and role in walking formation
Listed below are the roles of walkers when walking in single file. Numbers are from the front
to the rear -
1 . Responsible for carrying the compass and direction of travel
2. Carries the map and responsible for map-to-ground observations
3. Records the distance travelled by counting paces
4. Responsible for communications and navigation log
5. Uses the GPS if carried to verify position
6. Carries first aid kit and performs the duties of ‘whip’ [always last in line]
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
BUSHFIRE SURVIVAL
Every year in Australia there are serious bushfires in which people are caught and sometimes
die. In some cases these deaths could have been prevented if the people involved had not
panicked and had a basic knowledge of bushfire survival. Here are some basic rules.
Avoid
Take immediate action to leave an area as soon as you become aware of the fire. Every
minute may be critical especially if on foot.
Panic
Causes energy loss and poor judgement, act calmly and do not run.
Breathing
When the smoke is dense the air closest the ground will be cool and fresh.
Heat
Radiated heat is the real danger; use anything to avoid it such as culverts, running streams,
ponds, rocks or depressions.
Flame Fronts
Do not attempt to run through flame fronts. Always move downhill from a fire as fires travel
faster uphill. Avoid dense areas with heavy fuel such as swamps or creeks.
Critical Periods
When you have no possible escape you should lie on the ground [bare ground, in a rut or
behind a log or rocks] or bury yourself and stay put.
Clothing
When you realise that you are in danger from a bush fire cover as much exposed skin as you
can with any clothing available. Do not use nylon clothing.
If your clothes catch fire do not run as this feeds air to the fire, roll on the ground or use items
such as blankets to smother the fire.
In a vehicle
Many tragedies have occurred because people left the safety of their vehicles and tried to flee
from a fire. Your vehicle will provide much protection from radiated heat.
Park the vehicle in a clear area away from heavy fuels; protect yourself from radiated heat
with blankets, towels, coats, etc. Close all windows, doors and vents. Leave the hazard lights
on, leave the engine running. Turn the air-conditioning on, set to re-cycle.
Note:
Remain in the vehicle as long as possible. Exit the vehicle on the lee side avoiding hot
door handles, etc.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 5
Radio Communications
CITIZEN BAND RADIO
The Citizen Band Radio Service [CBRS] is a two-way, short distance, voice communications
service that can be used by any person in Australia. CB radios provide a cheap and reliable
means of communications.
The service operates in two distinct frequency bands - the High Frequency [HF] band [26.965
- 27.405 MHz] and the Ultra High Frequency [UHF] band [476.425 - 477.400 MHz]
The service is for public access and is available to everyone and as a private operator no
licence or fees are required.
There are specific calling channels for CB operators in both frequencies. Channel 1 1
[27.085MHz] & channel 16 [27.155MHz] in HF band and channel 11 [476.675MHz] in the
UHF band. These are call channels and once contact has been made conversations should be
continued on another separate channel, allowing the call channels to remain free for other
users. If you are travelling in a convoy it makes good sense to settle on a usual ‘working’
channel.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
When operating your CB radio following the guidelines set out below will assist in your
transmission being received and maintenance of the mandatory standards specified for radio
users by the Australian Communications Authority being maintained.
• Listen before transmitting to ensure that the channel is not already in use.
• Use call signs, of those stations you want and your own.
• Keep conversations brief and to the point. Know what you are going to say before you
start your transmission
• Use the word “OVER†at the end of each transmission. This indicates you are waiting
for a response.
• Use the word “OUT†at the end of communications to indicate to other stations that
you have finished and the channel is free.
• Do not respond to a call not intended for your station, thus keeping the channel free of
unnecessary congestion.
• Use appropriate language. Your transmissions will be heard by anyone with a radio
tuned onto your channel.
• Speak clearly and slowly, holding the microphone 5-8cm away from the mouth. Use a
normal speaking voice, there is no need to shout.
• Use the phonetic alphabet when communications are difficult and accuracy is
important.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Phonetic Alphabet
Using the phonetic alphabet when communications are difficult and accuracy is important will
assist you; the phonetic alphabet consists of-
A
Alpha
F
Foxtrot
K
Kilo
P
Papa
U
Unifonn
B
Bravo
G
Golf
L
Lima
Q
Quebec
V
Victor
C
Charlie
H
Hotel
M
Mike
R
Romeo
w
Whiskey
D
Delta
1
India
N
November
S
Sierra
X
X-ray
E
Echo
J
Juliet
O
Oscar
T
Tango
Y
Yankee
Z Zulu
Parts of a transmission
•
CALLSIGN -
Of station called
•
THIS IS
Proword
•
CALLSIGN -
Of station calling
•
TEXT
Message
•
ENDING
Proword e.g. “OUT'
Prowords
Prowords are words that are commonly used and accepted when making transmissions. They
are designed to assist in keeping transmissions brief and conveying meaning in a single word
or short phrase. Common prowords are listed below -
Pro word
Meaning
Correct
You are correct
Correction
An error has been made and the correct message will be sent
I say again
Used when repeating all or part of a message
I spell
Used to indicate that you are about to spell the next word phonetically
Mayday
A distress signal not normally used in land communications and only used in
an emergency
Out
Transmission has ended and a reply is not required
Over
Transmission has ended and a reply is expected
Read back
Receiving callsign is to repeat the message back to sender. This assists in
showing message was understood.
Roger
Message received and understood
Say again
Repeat your entire message. Used when the message is not understood.
Send
Ready to receive a message
Sitrep
Situation report
Verify
Used when repeating part of a message you want clarified
Wait
Indicating a pause is required in transmission
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EXAMPLES OF TRANSMISSIONS
Outlined below are some examples of the best way in which transmissions should be made.
By following these guidelines of transmission you will be easily understood by other radio
operators. These guidelines will also assist in building confidence in yourself knowing that
you can operate in a professional manner.
Station
called
This is
Station
calling
Message
Ending
Radio Check
WA 1
This is
WA 2
Radio check
Over
WA 2
This is
WA 1
You are loud and clear, how am I
Over
WA 1
This is
WA 2
You are loud and clear
Over
WA 2
This is
WA 1
Roger
Out
Situation Report
WA 1
This is
WA 2
Sitrep
Over
WA 2
This is
WA 1
Send
Over
WA 1
This is
WA 2
Sitrep
• Our location is
Route 1. Leg 3.
Grid Reference 123456
• Our heading is
095 degrees magnetic
• No problems
• Estimated time of arrival at waypoint
bravo is 1130 hours
Over
WA 2
This is
WA 1
Roger
Out
Situation Reports
A situation report is an essential tool in communications for allowing RFDS or whoever else
you have organised to monitor your progress. Do not underestimate the value of regular
sitreps. The missing of a situation report to your designated monitor will assist in gaining help
should an emergency beyond your control occur. Therefore allowing timely deployment of
help.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
EMERGENCY RADIO PROCEDURES
In an emergency situation where you require assistance, specific channels are set aside for
broadcast. These channels are -
Channel
Frequency
Band
9
27.065MHz
HF
5
476.525MHz
UHF
35
477.275MHz
UHF
If your radio has the ability these emergency channels should be programmed into your set for
easy access. These channels are monitored on a 24-hour basis by voluntary groups to assist in
contacting the appropriate emergency service on your behalf.
If you have had no fonnal radio training the following broadcast transmission guidelines will
assist in obtaining assistance -
Send - AB123 [or any station] This is [your call sign if you know it or your name]
Urgent message, calling any station, Urgent message - Over.
Reply - [Await reply from monitoring group] ACRM Base receiving, send. Over.
Send - AB 123 Urgent message
Our location is [your position. From GPS if possible]; and
Nature of emergency, - Over
Reply - ACRM or monitoring agency will assist and guide you from here.
Note:
It is a good idea to teach all persons in your group how to operate your radio, advise
them to stay calm and to speak slowly and clearly.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 6
Creek & River Crossings
The question of crossing creeks and rivers is a vexed one and one that usually results in
people avoiding them because of the inherent danger. It is possible in a survival situation
however that you may have no option but to cross a creek or waterway to make your way to
safety.
Note:
Under no circumstances should you cross an expanse of water that is deeper than the
groin level of the shortest member of your party unless your survival depends on it.
If however you are required to cross a water hazard then there are accepted methods and
safety procedures that can be applied.
APPRECIATIONS
Before proceeding, conduct a mental appreciation including reviewing the situation and
making sure there are no alternatives and the crossing is unavoidable. Have a clear
understanding of what is required by listing the factors that will help or hinder you. Consider
the courses open to you and select the best course.
Considerations
If you decide you have to cross then there are several points you should consider, these
include -
1 . The shape of the water hazard to be crossed.
2. The composition of the ground underfoot.
3. Speed of flow of the water
4. Turbulence of the water.
5. Depth of water.
6. Temperature of the water.
7. Proposed entry and exit points.
8. Capabilities of members of your group.
Acceptable places to cross
There are two places where you should be safe during a crossing including shallow water
[approximately thigh deep] over a gravel bed with accessible banks or a deep, slow flowing
river that is not too wide.
Unacceptable places to cross
High and discoloured water with excessive flow, volume and river width.
Note:
Remember you will need to consider whether to cross or not, where to cross and
which method to employ.
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METHODS OF CROSSING CREEKS & RIVERS
Without aid
Used when the water is below knee deep, the crossing should be in a diagonal downstream
direction with the body parallel to the water flow. It is easier to maintain stability by ensuring
one leg is upstream and one downstream. There is a danger that the rushing flow of water may
cause your legs to buckle if you are facing downstream.
Single pole crossing
Used when the water is between the knee and groin in depth and the bottom is smooth with no
obvious obstacles. The line of crossing should again be diagonal and downstream. The pole [2
m long x 5cm diameter] must be positioned on the upstream side. You should use the pole as
a prop and you should lean in to it and walk in an arc until you have to stop and re-position
the pole.
Note:
When using this method the body should remain parallel with the water flow.
Group pole crossing:
Used when the water is above groin height. This method provides mutual support and is
suited to groups of 3 to 6 people. The crossing should again be diagonal and downstream in
direction. The group should be parallel to the flow of water with the strongest person on the
upstream end and the next strongest on the downstream end. The pole should be grasped with
the upstream ann over and the downstream ann under.
Note:
If conditions are too difficult then retreat by walking backwards, do not try to turn
around.
Swimming method
Used where the crossing is deep, the river is clear of debris and the current is not a problem.
Waterproof your pack and use it as a flotation aid by holding it in front of you with one hand
and using your other hand and legs to propel yourself forward.
Points to remember
The following points are listed to assist you in any water crossing -
1 . Move side on to the current, take small steps and keep your eyes on the far bank.
2. Move diagonally across the river to lessen the effect of the current.
3. Never fight against the current or hold onto submerged logs or rocks.
4. Keep your boots on and avoid loose baggy clothing.
5. Wear thennal clothing next to the skin in cold conditions.
6. Waterproof your pack, loosen the shoulder straps and unfasten the waistband.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CHAPTER 7
Bush First Aid
First Aid is what you can do to assist an injured person at the scene using only what is
available under the prevailing circumstances. You may only have your two hands, remember
that first aid does not rely on equipment. In some circumstances if there is nothing, or nothing
more to be done then first aid may mean going for assistance. Remember the patient is
relying on you to go carefully to avoid accident or injury to yourself. Possibly the most
important aspect of practical first aid, particularly in the bush, is clear logical thinking and the
ability to improvise.
Factors
First aid is based on three factors -
1 . Common sense
2. Knowledge
3. Technique
Order of urgency
• Protection of the patient from further injury.
• Ensuring first-aiders have regard for their own safety.
• Restoration of breathing and heart beat.
Further responsibilities
Stop bleeding, minimise pain, reassure the patient, seek further aid and if necessary transport
the patient to hospital.
Making a diagnosis
Before you can commence rational treatment, a diagnosis must be made consisting of-
• History - the story of how the injury occurred
• Symptoms - what the patient feels
• Signs - what you can observe or find out by examination of the patient
CONDITIONS
Unconsciousness, shock, bleeding, pain and hysteria
Unconsciousness
There are many causes and these include, heart attack, drowning, electrocution, head injury,
fainting and smoke inhalation. General treatment is the same -
1 . Remove the patient from the cause or the cause from the patient
2. Examine the patient quickly
3. Commence cardio pulmonary resuscitation where necessary
4. Stop bleeding if necessary
5. Turn the patient on side in the recovery position
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
Shock
Shock is a fall in blood pressure that, if unchecked results in irreversible changes in the body
functions at cellular level resulting in death. ‘There is a point of no return’. The onset of shock
is often delayed, such as when a person first starts bleeding. They may not be shocked, but if
they go on bleeding [externally or internally] they will eventually become shocked.
Prevention is extremely important because of the ease and subtlety with which a state of
irreversibility can develop.
Causes of Shock
Shock is caused by the actual or relative reduction of intravascular volume where not enough
blood is available for the heart to pump to vital organs, or the pressure is too low to be of use.
Specific causes of shock include bleeding, burns through loss of fluid to damaged tissues,
heart attack, painful injuries, fractures, fainting and blood loss at fracture site. Shock is also
caused by disease and infection, heat stroke, fluid loss, salt loss, fatigue and vomiting.
Recognition of Shock
Cold and clammy, rapid feeble pulse, rapid shallow breathing, thirst, weakness, anxiety,
restlessness, inability to speak and nausea
Treatment of Shock
Minimise fluid loss, raise the legs, protect from elements, maintain temperature, reassure,
moisten lips and do not give alcohol.
BASIC LIFE SUPPORT
In the management of collapse it is important that no time is wasted. Stay with the collapsed
person and follow the steps as outlined below -
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
FRACTURES
The key to the treatment of fractures is immobilisation. A mobile fracture is painful, can cause
internal bleeding, may become compound [break through the skin] and is a major cause of
shock.
Treatment of Fractures
Assess the situation and see if you can immobilise the site, reduce or re-position [only reduce
a fracture if you must] and then support [axial traction if necessary.]
Method of Immobilisation
• Fingers - strap the broken one to the adjacent finger
• Legs - strap legs together or splint
• Pelvis - strap legs together
• Upper arm - collar and cuff sling and bandage upper arm to chest
• Ribs - leave alone
Note:
If the patient faints with pain do not stop, reduce and splint the fracture
FRACTURES OF THE SPINE
Fractures of the spine are associated with large forces and may be complicated by damage to
the spinal cord. Therefore to avoid permanent damage, careful protective handling aimed at
minimising spinal cord damage is essential.
Signs and Symptoms
These may range from severe pain to loss of sensations and lack of control over limbs.
Treatment
The aim of treatment is to prevent farther damage by immobilising the spine. If the patient
should be immobilised do so by strapping the legs together, maintaining body position with
improvised padding and keeping the head straight and in extension to ensure an open airway.
SPRAINS
Sprains involve the abnonnal stretching or the partial tearing of the supporting ligaments of
any joint, ankles are the most common in outdoor activities.
Diagnosis
Pain, swelling, tenderness and bruising but still able to use the joint or limb.
Treatment
In bush walking situations it may be better not to remove the boot if it comes above the ankle.
Otherwise contrast bathing if available [alternate bathing in warm and cold water, 5 minutes
at a time] or immerse in cold water for 15 minutes then bandage.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
HEAD INJURY
If a patient is unconscious and has not obviously been electrocuted or drowned then you
should think of head injury, remember there may be no signs. Bleeding from the nose, mouth
or ears may indicate a fracture of the skull. If a patient who has been unconscious recovers
and then loses consciousness again you may assume head injury.
Treatment
Treatment is very simple and general first aid principles apply. Turn into the recovery position
and transport to hospital.
BURNS AND SCALDS
• 1st degree - superficial burns such as sunburn
• 2nd degree - partial thickness burns where blisters are present
• 3rd degree - full thickness with charred skin or white skin with a red edge
Rule of 9's
The area of burn is important once the burn has been diagnosed as 2nd degree or worse. The
burnt area can be assessed as a percentage of the body surface using the following table -
Arms
9% x 2
18%
Lower leg
9% x 2
18%
Upper leg
9% x 2
18%
Stomach
9% x 1
9%
Buttocks
9% x 1
9%
Chest
9% x 1
9%
Back
9% x 1
9%
Head
9% x 1
9%
Groin
1%X 1
1%
100%
Note:
Tremendous fluid loss to the damaged tissues occurs with burns and in the event of a
person sustaining partial thickness burns then 5% will require hospitalisation and 9%
will require intra venous fluid, with full thickness burns 2.5% requires hospitalisation
and 5% will require intra venous fluid.
Treatment
Cold water should be used for any burn of any thickness.
Do not use butter as this will introduce bacteria and leave any blisters intact.
The use of an antibiotic cream or Betadine ointment is useful to prevent infection because
infection will convert a partial thickness burn into a full thickness burn.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
BLEEDING
Blood flows through the circulatory system using arteries and veins, if there is a break or a
hole in an artery or vein then bleeding will occur.
Treatment
Simply plug the hole, do not worry about whether it is arterial or venous bleeding. Remember,
‘bleeding is bleeding’. First wipe away any blood or remove the clothing so you can see
where the bleeding is coming from. Next hold, press or apply pressure with a pad and
bandage the source of the bleeding. Then elevate the bleeding site if practical.
If there is much bleeding the patient will develop shock quickly.
Note:
Tourniquets are generally a big ‘no - no’ and are only to be used if you cannot stop the
bleeding in any other way. Tourniquets do cause more damage and the limb may be
lost altogether but use common sense, if the limb is severed use a tourniquet first as
you cannot do any further damage to a limb that is not there.
PAIN
There are many causes of pain. They may be uncomfortable, incapacitating or minor injuries,
[stings, bites, splinters, blisters] remove the cause and/or treat the injury.
HYSTERIA
Defined as irrational behaviour caused by fear or anxiety such as claustrophobia when caving,
freezing when climbing a rock face or crossing a stream by way of a log bridge.
Treatment
Reassure and secure the patient from danger. This may mean immobilising him/her or roping
them to a rock face or whatever. Retrieve the patient by leading or removing him/her off the
offending environment to a secure position.
ASPHYXIA
Asphyxia is a state of unconsciousness induced by lack of air due to drowning, smoke
inhalation, choking [foreign body in throat], foul air or gas, suffocation by sand or paralysis of
respiratory muscles as in blue ringed octopus bites or cone shell stings.
Treatment
Begin cardio pulmonary resuscitation [CPR] and keep going until help arrives, remember this
may be 1 or 2 hours or more.
Note:
Marine stings, cone shell and blue ringed octopus victims may start breathing by
themselves some considerable time after lapsing into unconsciousness.
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INSECT BITES
The only fatal bites are from ticks [spiders are not insects]. Red back spiders and scorpions
cause pain, not death. The other major problem is allergy. An anaphylactic [severe allergic]
reaction may occur in some cases such as bee stings, wasp stings, ant bites or ingestion of
certain foods such as shellfish for some people.
Treatment
Insects inject their venom below the skin and the skin is there to keep in what's in and what's
out, out and it mainly does that, but things like alcohol, ammonia and methylated spirits may
be useful as counter irritants. In bee-stings the poison sac is attached to the sting and the sting
being barbed will often remain in the skin. It should be removed with the blade of a knife or
the edge of a piece of paper, not between the fingers as this will squeeze the venom sac and
inject more venom. Ticks should be removed using alcohol to irritate and then prying it off
using tweezers on either side of the mouth part. Do not hold by the body and pull it off as this
may leave mouth parts embedded in the skin.
Prevention
Simple self protection measures can be used to minimise contact including avoiding outdoor
activity at dawn and dusk, wearing long sleeved, light coloured loose clothing and not using
perfume, cologne or after shave. Use insect repellents with a DEET content of between 15 —
20% on exposed skin.
SNAKE BITE
Ninety per cent of snake bites in Australia are at the ankle or below, eight per cent occur on
the hands and two per cent elsewhere on the body. Assume all snakes are venomous. Always
believe someone when they say they have been bitten, even though you may not see any
puncture marks. Nine deaths have been attributed to snakebite in Western Australia in the
period from 1980 - 2001.
Signs and Symptoms
Puncture marks, slight bruising, redness and swelling, nausea, sweating, diarrhoea, pains in
the chest and double vision.
Treatment
1. Apply broad firm elastic pressure bandage over bite and as much of the limb as
possible. After covering bite continue bandaging up the limb and if sufficient bandage
back down again.
2. Immobilise limb with splint. On leg, splint in straight position. On foreann, splint to
elbow and support arm in sling.
3. Keep victim still. Bring transport to victim and convey to nearest hospital.
4. For bites on trunk of body or face, apply local pressure only with flat of hand.
Note:
Do not wash venom from bite site. Bandages and splints should be left on and
removed only by a doctor.
Prevention
The best guard against snakebite is protection. If you wear above ankle boots and/or thick
socks and long trousers you are less likely to be bitten by anything. Use gloves when
collecting firewood, never put your hand under anything without first rolling it over with your
boot and watch where you put your feet when walking and never step over logs, always step
up on them and then step down.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
CUTS AND ABRASIONS
Treatment
Clean with water and apply antiseptic cream or solution as this may prevent infection later.
Cover with band-aid, dressing or bandage to avoid further contamination of the wound.
BLISTERS
Treatment
Leave them intact, if you make a hole for the fluid or blood to get out you have made a hole
for germs to get in. Pad away from the area causing pressure using band-aids, felt strips, a felt
pad with a hole cut in it or a specially designed blister dressing
Note:
Do not put the dressing directly on the blister unless it is specifically designed for this
purpose as this increases pressure.
SPLINTERS
Treatment
The skin is very elastic therefore a splinter stretches the skin as it goes in and the skin then
closes over it or at least grips the splinter. A small [painless] superficial cut with a scalpel at
the site of entry is helpful in removing the splinter.
CARE OF FEET
Your feet get you wherever you are going, especially on bush walks, it is therefore important
to take care of them. Wear suitable footwear, preferably hiking boots or shoes with a heavy
sole, hygiene is important so wash feet daily and apply foot powder
CASUALTY ACTION
If you are on foot in a group and a member sustains an injury preventing him/her being
carried out then a team consisting of at least two people should remain with the casualty. A
second team of no less than two people should continue to the next organised check point or
aid station with a written casualty report containing -
• Designation of the group
• The names of all group members.
• Name of casualty
• The nature of the problem or injury.
• Assistance required.
• Map details and the location of the casualty.
• The food and water state of the group.
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AIDS TO SURVIVAL
HYPOTHERMIA
Hypothermia is the lowering of the body core temperature.
Mild Hypothermia
Skin feels cold, looks blue or livid [mottled], the patient shivers and feels cold.
Severe Hypothermia
Skin is cold and mottled, no shivering [shivering response has failed], irrational behaviour
and speech, may be uncooperative, may be unconscious. If so is near death.
Treatment
Shelter in a warm dry environment and replace wet clothing with dry clothing, leave arms and
legs cold but insulate limbs with blankets to minimise further heat loss.
Re-wann critical areas [chest, neck and head] by body-to-body contact with two or more
persons or by placing heated objects such as hot rocks [wrapped in towels to prevent burning
the skin] about the areas mentioned, particularly the sides of the chest.
Breathe wann air near the patient's mouth [several people if possible] to wann the air
breathed into the lungs.
If conscious, re-hydrate with wann drinks [non-alcoholic]. If unconscious, transport to
hospital and leave the patient cold while transporting, insulate with blankets to prevent
further heat loss.
Note:
A victim if cold can be resuscitated after a much longer period of technical death
[when no pulse or breathing can be detected] than a patient at normal temperature.
FROSTBITE
Recognition
Pain in extremities with failure of skin sensation, skin does not move freely over toes and
knuckles.
Treatment
Do not thaw if likely to re-freeze, do not rub frozen parts, thaw rapidly and completely in
warm water in 40° to 42 °C. Protect thawed regions, do not break any blisters and keep the
whole body warm to promote circulation.
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HYPERTHERMIA
Hyperthermia is Heat Stroke and may be fatal.
Factors Influencing Development
These include high air temperature; conditions of high humidity and unsuitable clothing that
reduces sweat evaporation. Other factors include -
• Level of exercise - sustained exercise causes internal heat generation
• Body build - big, well muscled or fat people are more susceptible
• Level of fitness - fit people have better blood flow to muscles and skin
• Dehydration - reduces blood volume
• Age - elderly at higher risk than young
• Climate - acclimatisation to hot conditions reduces risk
Recognition [In hot conditions]
• Skin feels hot to the touch
• Face is flushed
• Rapid pulse at rest
• Dizziness
• Excessive fatigue
• Lethargy and no will to go on
• Irrational behaviour
• Cessation of sweating
Treatment
Transfer to cool shaded location and immerse in cold water, apply ice packs, water or alcohol
to skin, concentrate on cooling head, neck and chest.
Re -hydrate by giving cool fluids orally and keep the patient at rest.
SALT DEPLETION
Recognition
Muscle cramps after sweating in hot conditions.
Treatment
Give oral fluids, preferably one of the commercially marketed balanced electrolyte
replacements dissolved in water. Most of these are suitable and are aimed at the average
amount of salt lost. They contain glucose and a mixture of sodium, potassium and chloride,
which are the three main mineral electrolytes that people lose. The cramps occur because of
an imbalance between the electrolytes and the fluid levels in the muscle cells.
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WAP A TEAM FIELD FIRST AID KIT
1 Pack Sterile Gauze Swabs
1 No. 14 Wound Dressing
1 Roll Band-Aid Adhesive Dressing Strip
1 Pkt Band-Aid Adhesive Dressings
1 Roll Waterproof Adhesive Tape [2.5cm]
2 Non Adherent Dressings [10cm]
1 Sterile Combine Dressing Pad
1 Elastic Bandage [7.5cm]
1 Elastic Bandage [10cm]
2 Calico Triangular Bandages
1 Pair Scissors
1 Pair Tweezers
1 Sterile Needle
1 Sterile Scalpel Blade
5 Antiseptic Wipes
1 Tube Insect Bite/Sting Relief Gel
1 Tube Betadine Ointment
1 Pkt Paracetamol Tablets
1 Pkt Paracetamol Tablets With Codeine
1 Instant Ice Pack
Resuscitation Face Mask. Foil Rescue Blanket. Sanitary Napkins. Tampons. Small Plastic
Rubbish Bags. First Aid Notes. Notebook & Pencil. Disposable Gloves. Tissues.
Safety Pins. Petroleum Jelly. Insect Repellent [DEET 15-20%]. Sun-block [SPF 30+].
WAP A FIELD HEADQUARTERS BASE FIRST AID KIT
1 Pack Sterile Gauze Swabs
1 No. 13 Wound Dressing
1 No. 14 Wound Dressing
1 No. 15 Wound Dressing
1 Roll Band-Aid Adhesive Dressing Strip
1 Pkt Band-Aid Adhesive Dressings
1 Roll Waterproof Adhesive Tape [2.5cm]
5 Non Adherent Dressings [10cm]
1 Sterile Combine Dressing Pad
2 Elastic Bandage [7.5cm]
2 Elastic Bandage [10cm]
3 Calico Triangular Bandages
3 Sterile Eye Pads
3 Tullegras Sterile Dressings [10cm]
1 Pkt Butterfly Wound Closures
1 Pkt Cotton Buds
1 Pkt Cotton Balls
1 Pair Scissors
1 Pair Tweezers
1 Sterile Needle
1 Sterile Scalpel Blade
5 Antiseptic Wipes
1 Tube Insect Bite/Sting Relief Gel
1 Tube Antiseptic Ointment
1 Bottle Antiseptic Solution
1 Container Antiseptic Powder
1 Pkt Paracetamol Tablets
1 Pkt Paracetamol Tablets With Codeine
lBottle Cough Medicine
1 Pkt Medicated Throat Lozenges
1 Bottle Eye-Stream Irrigation Solution
1 Bottle Eye Drops
1 Bottle Ear Drops
1 Pkt Antihistamine Tablets
1 Pkt Anti Diarrhoea Tablets
1 Pkt Laxative Tablets
1 Pkt Electrolyte Replacement Powder
1 Bottle Oil Of Cloves
1 Pkt Antacid Tablets
1 Bottle/Tube Liniment
1 Instant Ice Pack
Resuscitation Face Mask. Foil Rescue Blanket. Sanitary Napkins. Tampons. Small Plastic
Rubbish Bags. First Aid Notes. Notebook & Pencil. Large Kidney Dish. Disposable Gloves.
Tissues. Safety Pins. Tick Removal Pliers. Insect Extractor Kit. Petroleum Jelly.
Insect Repellent [DEET 15-20%]. Sun-block [SPF 30+].
Note:
Those responsible for group first aid should have a current relevant first aid
qualification. All treatments must be recorded. Personal medication should remain the
responsibility of individuals.
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ST JOHN AMBULANCE HIKERS FIRST AID PACK
1 Adhesive shapes, assorted 50pkt
1 Adhesive tape [zinc oxide] 2.5cm x 5m
1 Triangular bandage llOx llOx 155cm
1 Confonning bandage 5 cm
2 Non-adherent dressing 10 x 10cm
1 Wound dressing, No. 14
3 Gauze swabs 7.5 x 7.5cm
5 Safety pins
1 Scissors, stainless steel
1 Forceps, stainless steel
3 Towels, disposable
2 Gloves disposable
3 Plastic bags, re-sealable
1 Notepad and pencil
1 First Aid Quick Reference Guide
Packed in a soft, green vinyl pouch designed to be worn on a belt
RED CROSS HIKING FIRST AID KIT
1 Contents list
1 Adhesive tape, 2.5cm
1 Scissors, blunt, sharp stainless steel
1 Combine dressing, 90 x 200mm
5 Adhesive dressing strips
1 Crepe bandage, 7.5cm
1 Disposable foil blanket
1 Eyewash, 30ml
1 Gauze bandage, 5 cm
1 Gauze bandage, 7.5cm
3 Gauze swabs
3 Individual plastic bags 150 x 200mm
2 Non-adhesive dressing 10 x 10cm
1 Gloves, disposable
1 Pkt tissues, 10
5 Safety pins, 40mm
1 Splinter forceps
I Nonnal saline, 30ml
1 Triangular bandage not less than 900mm
1 Confonning bandage 5 cm
1 Wound dressing, No. 14
1 ARC First Aid Notes
1 Pencil and notepad
A red, water resistant 100% nylon fold out soft pack with zippered inside compartments
designed for organisations and individuals involved in outdoor activities
ACTIVITY-SPECIFIC FIRST AID KITS
A wide range of activity-specific first aid kits is available from St John Ambulance, Red
Cross and outdoor suppliers to cope with outdoor recreation, adventure events and
commercial 4WD and outback touring activities.
Most new first aid kits available today are self-contained, compact and lightweight and
include a variety of first aid requirements. Basically there is a comprehensive range of first
aid kits available to cope with emergency and first aid situations, which vary in price
according to individual needs.
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DEALING WITH DEATH
While it is an accepted fact that only a qualified medical practitioner can certify that a person
is dead, and that treatment once started should be continued, there are occasions, particularly
in remote areas where the casualty is dead and a decision must be made to start or stop
treatment [as the case may be].
Signs of Death
• Fixed dilated pupils, not responding to resuscitation.
• Absence of spontaneous heart beat in spite of prolonged resuscitation.
• Rigor mortis [stiffening of the body] is a late but reliable sign of death.
Note:
Resuscitation should never be stopped when medical aid is imminent.
Dealing with a Dead Body
Whilst this may be an unpleasant topic it is a possibility that should be dealt with properly to
avoid further stress among witnesses and address the problem in a manner to satisfy the law
and to facilitate the later recovery of the body.
If on foot the group should not attempt to carry the body out with them and for purposes of
morale should not split themselves up and have some of the group remain while others go for
help. They should leave the body and walk out in a group.
Before doing this you should carry out the following procedure -
1 . Get everybody in the group to take careful notes of the circumstances surrounding the
death, as statements will be required for the coroner.
2. Wrap the body in a tent or ground sheet and firmly secure it with rocks etc., to protect
it from animals and the elements.
3. Mark the spot and the trail out to allow easier location later.
4. On return to civilisation report the matter to the police.
5. Take possession of all valuables found on the deceased, have somebody witness them
and give them to the Police when you are able.
Effects of Death on Others-
Watch for signs of shock [witness shock] in the party. At the very least there will be
depression and distress that must be handled by the group before it leads to worse
manifestations of stress and shock.
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CHAPTER 8
Land Navigation
Good map reading and land navigation is an essential requirement for bushwalkers and
travellers in the outback. Maps enable users to find their way about the country; allow
recognition of features and gives the user an understanding of the infonnation given on the
map allowing it to be related to the surrounding countryside. Maps also assist in the
transmission of information.
MAP READING
Map reading is the extraction of information shown on the map; the relationship of the ground
to the map and the map to the ground.
To make full use of a map, it is necessary to give and read grid references, to take bearings
and to measure distances. The ability to use or read a map is called ‘map craft’.
Reliability of maps
A map is a plan of the ground. Remember however, it is a plan of the ground at a certain date.
If it is a long time since the map was produced or revised much may have changed. Towns
grow, roads and railways are built and forests grow and are cut down. No map can be taken as
being reliable except concerning the main physical features of the land. Even these may
change slowly, as coastlines erode and in some places rivers may even change their courses.
Note:
It is very important to note the date the map was produced or revised and to judge its
reliability accordingly.
Care of maps
Maps are valuable documents and the supply is never unlimited and they should be treated
with care to prevent damage. Most damage to maps occurs when the users open them
outdoors or in moving vehicles. There is always the chance of a slight breeze that might catch
them and start small tears that can quickly spread.
To prevent tears, maps should be folded in such a way that any part can be referred to without
having to be fully opened.
Once a map is folded, leave it folded, the detail at creases is sure to deteriorate but less than if
the map was constantly unfolded and folded. Protect the folded map by placing it in a plastic
map case when not in use.
Marginal information
Printed around the margin of the map is the information needed when the map is being used.
This is referred to as Marginal Infonnation. The type of information and the layout may differ
from map to map.
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Marginal Information Contents
On Australian maps a standard layout is adopted which gives the following information -
• Sheet Name
This is usually shown on the top centre of the map
• Map Edition
Usually located at the top right of the map
• Sheet Number
Maps are commonly referred to by sheet number, name and edition
• Grid Reference Block
Located at the bottom of the map and explains how to calculate a six figure grid
reference
• Legend Panel
Located at the bottom of the map and gives a legend of the conventional signs used
• Sheet History
Located at the bottom of the map and gives production details
• Index to Adjoining Sheets
Located at the bottom the map
• Magnetic Variation Information
Located at the bottom of the map and gives the annual magnetic variation
• Reliability Diagram
This diagram does not appear on all maps, indicates the reliability of the information
shown on a map
• Representative Fraction
A method of indicating the scale of the map. Usually located at the top left of the map.
• Linear Scale
Usually located at the bottom centre of the map
Conventional signs or legend
The mapmaker tries to show objects on the ground in the clearest possible way. These objects
are not shown as they appear because they would be too small to recognise. Instead, simple
symbols, referred to as conventional signs are used to indicate the objects. It is important to
note that the centre base of the particular sign indicates the position of the object on the map.
Scale
The scale of a map is the relationship of the distance between two points on the map and the
distance between the same two points on the ground.
Other types of maps
The information contained in this manual refers mainly to topographical maps. These maps
present a complete and accurate picture of the ground by showing as much detail as their scale
allows. It may be that accurate topographical maps are not available for a particular area and
in this case an alternate map such as a road map, orthophotomap or air photograph will have
to be used.
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TERMS USED IN MAP READING
Some terms used in map reading to describe physical features include -
Basin
An area of reasonably level ground surrounded, or nearly surrounded by hills. It can also be
the description used to depict the area drained by a river and it’s tributaries.
Breakaway
A small gully or low cliff line formed by erosion.
Crest
The highest part of a hill or mountain range. Specifically it is that line on a range of hills or
mountains from which the ground slopes down in opposite directions.
Escarpment
The steep hillside formed by a sudden drop in the general ground level. This feature usually
comes off a plateau.
Gorge
A deep ravine usually with very steep sides.
Knoll
A small knob-like hill.
Plateau
A tableland or generally level elevated region of considerable extent.
Ravine
A long, deep valley worn by a stream.
Re-entrant
A valley or ravine usually located between two spurs running inwards towards the hill or
mountain-top.
Ridge
The line along a hill or range of hills or mountains from which the water flows in opposite
directions. Sometimes it is described as the crest of a line of hills as it appears along the
horizon.
Saddle
A depression between adjacent hill or mountain-tops; also called a col.
Spur
A minor feature generally in the form of a ridge running out from the hill or mountain.
Undulating ground
Ground that rises and falls gently.
Watershed
The line separating the water flowing into two different river systems.
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NAVIGATION ROUTE PLAN
The importance of this document should not be underestimated. It can be in the form of a pre-
prepared card or alternatively data written in a notebook.
The route plan expresses the intentions of the individual or group as to where they are going,
how long it should take and what to do in the event of an emergency. If in a group it is
important that everybody in a group has the same infonnation.
The process of preparing a navigation route plan whereby members of the group are required
to sit down and express their ideas and reach conclusions by consensus is an integral part of
the teambuilding process. Such information should include -
Group details
Name of the group, the full names of all group members and whether any members of the
group have any limiting medical conditions or are taking any medication.
Map details
The map title, edition number and scale should be recorded along with the magnetic variation
applicable to the map. A sketch map should be drawn.
Route details
This should include Route numbers and the numbers of legs, which make up each route.
Waypoints
Details of each waypoint or landmark should include not only its position expressed as a six-
figure grid reference but also a detailed description of that location.
Distance
The distance to be covered should be expressed in metres over the ground and an estimate of
the number of paces required to cover the distance.
Heading
The grid bearing should be determined and the magnetic bearing to be walked should be
calculated by applying the magnetic variation for the map to the grid bearing. Both bearings
should be recorded.
Description of going
A ‘section’ of each leg must be drawn and entered in the route plan as a cross-sectional
diagram supported by a description of the terrain, density of vegetation and any features that
will be encountered.
Estimating journey time
Estimates of journey times should be calculated using Naismith’s Rule. This rule is a guide
only and can be modified with experience.
Escape routes and safety procedures
Escape routes should be pre-determined and should be entered along with details of any safety
instructions.
Any safety instructions should be clear, concise and must be written in language that is clearly
understood by members in an emergency.
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NAVIGATION ROUTE PLAN CARD
Administration Details
SKETCH MAP DETAILS
Name
Date
Exercise
Map
Scale
Team Number
Team members
J
_2
J
_4
J
_6
_7
J
_9
Do any team members have limiting medical conditions or disabilities Yes No
Navigation Information
Route
& Leg
From
To
Distance
metres &
paces
Bearing
grid &
magnetic
Description Of
Going
terrain,
vegetation,
features
Estimated
Time
minutes
Escape
Route
&
Safety
Instructions
ESTIMATING JOURNEY TIME
Allow 1 hour for every 5000 m - easy going
3000 m - scrambling
1500 m - rough going
MAGNETIC VARIATION
Add 1 hour for every 450 m - ascent
900 m - descent
5 hours walking [fatigue]
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GRID REFERENCES
Superimposed over the entire map are vertical and horizontal lines. These lines are known as
grid lines and are numbered at each end. To assist the user when giving grid references these
grid lines are defined as eastings and northings.
Eastings
The vertical grid lines that run from bottom to top [or south to north] and divide the map from
west to east are commonly known as eastings. They are numbered from west to east.
Northings
The horizontal grid lines, which run from left to right [or west to east] and divide the map
from south to north, are known as northings. They are numbered from south to north.
The squares that are formed where eastings and northings cross are known as grid squares.
Obtaining a 6 Figure Grid Reference
To obtain a 6 Figure Grid Reference of a position on a map with a scale of 1:25,000 or
1:50,000 use the relevant roamer scale located on the compass base plate.
Grid references should always begin with the letters GR to show that they are grid references
and nothing else.
Six figure grid reference [GR 717139]
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MEASURING DISTANCES ON A MAP
To measure the distance in a straight line between two points on a map, lay the straight edge
of a piece of paper against the two points and mark the distance on the paper.
Next lay the paper along the linear scale and with the right hand mark against one of the
primary divisions and the left hand mark against the secondary divisions to the left of the zero
point on the scale.
The total distance is the distance to the right of zero, plus the distance to the left of zero.
Measuring distance [3.7 km or 3700 m]
PACING
When it is important that you locate a particular feature and you need to know accurately how
far you have travelled it will be necessary to pace the distance. This is done by counting the
number of double paces, left foot to left foot, or right foot to right foot. You will need to work
out exactly how many paces you walk over one hundred metres.
Note:
Most people on flat ground average 130 paces per 100 metres.
THE POINTS OF A COMPASS
North, East, South and West are the four cardinal points of the compass. There are, in all, 32
points of the compass, but only sixteen are normally used in map reading. These are the four
cardinal points and twelve intermediate points.
The degree system
The points of the compass give an approximate indication of direction only, for greater
accuracy the circle is divided into 360 degrees [O or 360 being the north point].
The four quadrants of the circle are each 90 degrees and therefore the East, South and West
points are at 90, 180 and 270 degrees respectively.
Each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds. Degrees are
marked 0 minutes ' and seconds ".
When the compass is being used, the subdivisions of a degree are too small for practical use
and readings to one degree are generally sufficient.
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Note:
Some organizations [Australian Army] measure angles in mils; 6,400 mils = 360°.
Bearings
The purpose of a bearing is to give an accurate indication of the direction of one point from
another. A bearing is the angle, measured clockwise, that a line makes with a fixed zero line.
The zero line is always taken to be north.
NORTH POINTS
In map reading, reference is made to three north points and each is detailed below:
True North
The earth spins on an axis that passes through the north and south poles. The North Pole is
geographical north, or true north. Lines drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole are true
north - south lines. True north is therefore the direction from any point on the earth's surface
to the North Pole.
Magnetic North
To say a compass points north is only relatively true because a compass needle does not point
to the North Pole. It points to a place in the far north of Canada known as the magnetic pole.
The direction a compass needlepoints is known as magnetic north.
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Grid North
The grid lines on a map do not lie true north and south, except along one standard meridian;
elsewhere on the map they make an angle with the true north south line. Since the grid lines
are parallel and are drawn on the map it is very convenient to use them for drawing or
measuring bearings. The direction of the north-south grid lines [eastings] is therefore known
as grid north.
The Orienteering Compass
The orienteering compass was developed in the 1930’s and are now used widely throughout
the world by armed forces and many other organizations as a general-purpose compass. The
most useful and durable of these have a base plate which makes the carrying of a protractor
unnecessary. They also come complete with a cover which provides protection and a mirror
which makes sighting objects easier as well as doubling as a signal mirror in emergencies.
The Silva 15T orienteering compass with cover and sighting mirror
Use of the compass
Because of its unique design, the orienteering compass is very simple to use.
To take a grid bearing from a map
The procedure for calculating a grid bearing from a map is as follows -
1. Place the long edge of the compass plate along the desired bearing making sure that
the direction of travel line on the compass plate points in the direction you wish to
travel [if your compass has a sighting mirror at the front remember this coincides with
the direction of travel line].
2. Turn the compass housing so that the meridian lines are parallel with the grid lines
[eastings] on the map.
3. Read the grid bearing on the housing where the index line intersects it.
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MAGNETIC VARIATION
The angle between the magnetic north line and the grid north line plus the annual change is
known as magnetic variation or the grid-magnetic angle. The position of the magnetic pole is
not fixed, it moves slightly from year to year. As a consequence, the direction of magnetic
north, and therefore the magnetic variation also changes by a small amount each year. Though
this change is not constant it can be forecast with sufficient accuracy over a number of years
and details of the annual change are given in the marginal infonnation as illustrated in the
diagram.
Lines joining places with equal magnetic variation are known as isogonals. They do not
themselves point in the direction of magnetic north. It might be expected that isogonals would
follow a regular pattern but the earth's magnetic field at any point is affected by the land and
mountain masses and the presence of metallic ores. Therefore, the isogonals are pulled out of
shape and follow no regular pattern.
Adjusting grid bearings for variation
When the compass is used with a map or in conjunction with map bearings, an adjustment
should be made to allow for the variation. This is especially important if there is considerable
variation in your area or if accuracy is important. With one turn of the dial you can make the
proper allowance of any variation. You must do this every time you wish to apply a variation
to a bearing. Find out the amount of variation in your area and then simply turn the dial as per
the following rule-
• From grid to magnetic
If the variation works out to be west, then you will need to leave the compass on the
map and turn the dial west the required number of degrees.
If the variation is east then turn the dial east.
• From magnetic to grid
Simply reverse the step.
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CONTOURS
The usual way of showing the shape of the ground on modern maps is by contour lines.
Contour lines make no attempt to give any visual illusion of relief and it is the failure to
recognise this that causes difficulty to some people, in understanding them. The idea of a
contour is very simple. It is an imaginary line drawn on a map, joining all places of equal
height above sea level.
Height of Contours
On the map each contour is drawn at a specific height above sea level and the vertical distance
between each is the same. The difference in height between contours is called the Vertical
Interval and is shown in the marginal information on the map.
It is from the height and spacing of the contours that the shape of the ground is deduced and if
necessary it can be calculated accurately. Some contour lines have the height above sea level
printed at intervals along their length.
Another simple starting point in determining the general topography of an area is to use the
flow of streams in conjunction with contours.
Contour Patterns
Each topographical feature such as a spur or a knoll is represented by its own particular
contour pattern.
Important Points
The most important points to remember about contour patterns are -
• Contour lines close together indicate steep slopes
• Contour lines far apart indicate gentle slopes
• Evenly spaced contour lines indicate uniform slopes
• When the spacing of contour lines, reading from high to low, decreases, the slope is
convex
• When the spacing of contour lines, reading from high to low, increases, the slope is
concave
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DRAWING A SECTION
To draw a section between two points on a map lay the edge of a piece of paper between the
two points, mark it at these two points and again where the contours on the map cut this edge.
Parallel to the edge of the paper draw lines representing heights of contours from highest to
lowest on the route to be followed.
From each mark you have made on the edge of the paper drop a line to the corresponding
height line and join these points to complete a section.
Drawing a section
PREDICTING WALKING TIME
The following method known as ‘Naismith's Rule’ is a general rule for calculating trip times
for an average walker with a medium weight pack.
• Allow 1 Hour for every -
5000 m Easy Going, 3000 m Scrambling or 1500 m Rough Going
• Add 1 Hour for every -
450 m Ascent, 900 m Descent and for every 5 Hours walking to cope with fatigue
SETTING THE COMPASS TO WALK ON A MAGNETIC BEARING
The following procedure should be followed when setting the compass to walk on a magnetic
bearing -
1. Set the magnetic bearing on the compass by rotating the compass housing until the
required bearing is in line with the index line on the compass plate.
2. Holding the compass flat in the palm of the hand turn around until the red end of the
compass needle points to the north mark on the compass housing and is parallel to the
meridian lines.
3. The direction arrow now points along the required magnetic bearing.
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TO TAKE A MAGNETIC BEARING
The procedure for taking magnetic bearings to an object is detailed below -
1 . Hold the compass with the direction arrow pointing to the object.
2. Rotate the compass housing until the red arrow of the meridian lines is directly
beneath the red [north] end of the compass needle.
3. Read the magnetic bearing on the housing where the index line intersects it.
BACK BEARINGS
Unlike most other types of compasses there is no requirement to calculate back bearings with
the orienteering compass. Simply turn around to face approximately the direction travelled
along and reverse the compass so that the direction arrow is towards the user. Orient the
compass by turning the whole body until the red end of the compass needle points to the north
point on the housing and travel in the direction in which the rear of the compass plate faces.
ALTERING DIRECTION TO AVOID AN OBSTACLE
There may be occasions when it will be necessary to alter the direction of travel to avoid a
major obstacle. This is best done by travelling around the obstacle using a series of right
angles. With the orienteering compass this can be done without any alterations to the original
compass setting simply by taking advantage of the right angles of the compass plate.
Altering direction using the base plate of a compass
COMPASS ERRORS
When using a magnetic compass, the user should be aware of the two main causes of variation
in compass readings:
Individual Compass Error
Each compass has its individual variation that is it does not point exactly to magnetic north,
the compass needle itself may not be quite true with the markings on the card and slight
divergences may be caused in other ways.
The error may be negligible or comparatively large and therefore it is important to have
compasses checked regularly. Any known error should be noted on the compass and when
readings are taken allowance must be made for the individual variation.
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Local Magnetic Attraction
Local magnetic attraction is due to the presence of any iron ore nearby. The compass is a
delicate instrument and quite small quantities of iron have a surprisingly large effect on its
behaviour.
A wristwatch or steel framed spectacles will affect the compass reading.
Take the precaution of seeing that all iron or steel objects are at a safe distance before using
the compass. Small articles will be safe in a trouser pocket but larger articles should be placed
two or three metres away.
Note:
Remember to keep away from power lines, wire fences, vehicles and railway lines
when using a magnetic compass.
COMPASS RESECTIONS
The following procedure can be used to fix your position when you can recognise features on
the ground and on the map but are unable to fix your exact map position.
1 . Select 2 or 3 prominent, widely spaced features that you can recognise on the map and
on the ground.
2. Using the compass, take a magnetic bearing to the first feature.
3. Convert the magnetic bearing to a grid bearing.
4. Convert the grid bearing to a back bearing and plot this bearing with a thin line from
the feature on the map.
Carry out the above procedure until you have plotted the back bearings on the map from each
of the features you have selected, your position is that point where the back bearings intersect.
Should they form a small triangle then your position is the centre of the triangle, however,
there should be sufficient detail on the ground and the map to confirm this.
Global Positioning Systems
GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is a military satellite-based navigation system,
free for civil use. The system was developed by the US Department of Defence and owned by
the Department of Transportation.
The process of Selective Availability [S/A] was turned off in May 2000. Selective availability
caused the GPS position to drift randomly & unpredictably giving an inaccurate reading
position up to several hundred metres from the true location. Selective availability was at best
accurate up to 100 metres for 95% of the time and up to 300 metres the other 5% of the time.
GPS accuracy is now to within 10 metres of the true position at all times.
The system uses 24 satellites that circle the earth twice a day in 6 pre set orbits at an altitude
of 22,200 kilometres to calculate position, altitude and velocity. This is achieved by GPS
receivers on the ground using these satellites as precise reference points to fix their position
by measuring the travel time of a signal transmitted from each satellite. The GPS then
computes it’s distance from the satellite and with this distance and distances from at least 4
satellites can deliver reliable predictions.
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CHAPTER 9
Expedition Skills
The rise in popularity of outdoor recreation has led to an increase in the number of
bushwalkers and expedition groups visiting national parks and wilderness areas. It is
important to remember that as well as recreational bushwalking in small groups there is much
interest in the more institutional ‘expedition skills training’. This aspect of bushwalking is
generally oriented toward youth groups and educational institutions. An expedition is defined
as a journey with a purpose.
Groups and organisations are encouraged in the interest of safety to prepare a written plan and
leave a copy with police in the area of the expedition as part of their ‘notification’.
THE ROLE OF EXPEDITIONS
Expedition training presents an exciting challenge to groups, it requires them to train for and
carry out expeditions or explorations with a specific purpose in unfamiliar country.
Prior planning & preparation
Organising, planning, training for and completing any expedition requires a high level of
teamwork, self-reliance and co-operation between group members. Emphasis should be on a
preliminary training program designed to develop specific skills related to the particular type
of expedition. Ideally the expedition should aim at encouraging group members to gain
confidence in meeting new challenges and to develop a spirit of adventure through personal
accomplishment.
Expedition purpose
All expeditions should have a clearly defined pre-conceived purpose and all members of the
group should have been involved in the planning process and be aware of the purpose of the
expedition.
EXPEDITION LEADERSHIP
Organisers of expeditions must be aware of their responsibility under duty-of-care legislation
and any appointed leaders should be prepared to accept responsibility for the safety of the
group on expedition.
Duty of expedition leaders
The duty owed by an expedition leader to a group can best be described as the duty of a
reasonably prudent leader or supervisor who has a duty to take reasonable care to avoid
exposing the group to unnecessary risk of injury and while there may be no consideration of
remuneration there is nevertheless a relationship whereby the group may be expected to
submit to a course of instruction which at times will require them to undertake training and
perform tasks in what may prove to be dangerous situations.
The expedition leader is required to provide a safe system for the group and give adequate
instruction. There is seen to be an element of dependence upon the leader by the group.
Note:
The expedition organiser is required to guard against a risk of harmful event and injury
that is reasonably foreseeable.
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Qualifying expeditions
Organisers should be satisfied that the group has completed an appropriate course of
instruction for the proposed expedition. Where the requirements for a qualifying expedition
state the group must act independently and not be accompanied they should ensure the group
are capable of conducting the planned expedition.
Under normal circumstances and if the age of the group requires it the group should be
accompanied on the expedition. If they are accompanied on any qualifying venture the leader
must ensure that all decisions affecting the outcome of the expedition are made by the group
members.
Leaders acting in a supervisory capacity and not accompanying the group must remain in
close proximity. The supervisor should be in contact with the group throughout the day and
for reasons of safety be available at night.
Note:
The supervisor should have good oversight of the group throughout and accept
responsibility for their plans and safety.
PRE-WALK CONSIDERATIONS
To walk with the least impact on the environment the right equipment is needed and all
expeditions should be well planned with environmental impact a major consideration.
Expedition members
All group members should have completed a preliminary expedition skills training
programme applicable to the level of the expedition.
Notifications
Before you leave let someone know where you will be walking, where you will camp, when
you are due back and what equipment the group is carrying. A copy of your plan should be
lodged with police in the area of the expedition.
Group size
Go in a small party [6-10] rather than a large one. Large parties usually have more impact on
the environment and are socially more unwieldy. Should your group be larger, split up and
meet at meal times and at campsites suitable for large groups.
Land owners
As a courtesy ensure that landowners have been contacted before entering their property. If
traversing aboriginal land make sure you have the necessary permits, etc.
Environmental impact
In some national parks walking tracks have been upgraded to offset the impact of increasing
foot traffic. You can help limit damage by staying on the track and walking through rough and
muddy sections rather than widening the damage by walking on track edges. Also avoid
cutting corners on steep 'zigzag' tracks.
Both these practices increase erosion and visual scarring as well as causing confusion for
future walkers. Sensitive vegetation is easily destroyed by trampling, so stay on rocks and
hard ground wherever possible. Choose your footwear for the terrain. Solid lightweight
walking boots can be used on most tracks. Wear joggers around the campsite rather than
thongs or bare feet.
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THE EXPEDITION PLANNING PROCESS
Expeditions require plans to be produced and briefings and de-briefings to be conducted.
Briefings are the provision of general information whilst plans contain directives. The de-
briefing is used to obtain on-going information and eventual assessment.
BRIEFINGS
The two distinct parts to a briefing are the preparation of the briefing and the conduct of the
briefing.
Preparation for a briefing session
Experience has proven that the selection of the best possible venue, and the use of suitable
aids will enhance the value of the briefing. Things to be considered include presentation,
venue, location, lighting and weather protection. Briefing aids include maps, models,
photographs and display boards.
Conduct of a briefing session
Having prepared the venue and aids, the briefing should be conducted in such a manner that
the briefing officer controls the activity. The sequence is to conduct an introduction, make
sure everyone can see, encourage the taking of notes and set up a fonnat for asking questions.
EXPEDITION PLANS
Expedition plans are the vehicle by which the expedition plan is conveyed to those involved
in the expedition. Such orders need to be correctly prepared, presented in a systematic way
and re-examined as a result of infonnation gained through de-briefings. They must be
accurate, brief but clear, contain all necessary information and most importantly be capable of
being actioned.
Layout of expedition plans
Plans need to follow a logical sequence to ensure all aspects are covered. The five headings
covered by the plan should include -
S Situation
M Mission
E Execution
A Administration & Logistics
C Command & Communications
SITUATION [introduction]
Gives background information in sequence and gives general details of the expedition, people
involved, topography, others in the area and any resources available.
MISSION [expedition purpose]
A clear, concise single purpose statement of the overall outcome to be achieved.
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EXECUTION [how the expedition will be conducted]
Details how the mission will be accomplished and includes a general outline including details
of roles, tasks, method, boundaries and special equipment. This section of the plan should also
contain the co-ordinating instructions for the expedition.
Actions On [contingency plans]
Actions to be taken in the event of an emergency or an unexpected happening. These include
when the expedition is terminated before the planned finishing time, injuries, lost persons,
vehicle break-down, medical emergencies and casualty evacuations.
Co-ordinating Instructions
These are the details common to all members by which the expedition organiser or leader
maintains control. Includes details of timings, movement, navigation and transport.
ADMINISTRATION & LOGISTICS [what is needed and what will be provided]
Details of food and water, re-supply arrangements and dress and equipment requirements.
COMMAND & COMMUNICATIONS [leader details and any communications]
Who will be in control and details of communications system including the type of radio,
primary and secondary frequencies, call signs, situation reports, radio schedule times, code
words and details of telephones and any other methods of communicating.
DE-BRIEFINGS
No expedition should be concluded until a de-briefing has been conducted. This is the primary
method employed to assess perfonnance. Depending on the size of the activity and the
number of participants there may be different types of de-briefings including phase de-
briefings to update information and revise plans and de-briefing of all involved prior to
conclusion to detennine effectiveness.
De-briefing Methodology
It is a good idea to have a structured approach to de-briefings which requires course
participants to analyse the experience by concentrating on performance and outcomes.
Activities should be examined to determine what went well and what did not, rather than
who went well and who did not. This separation of ego from performance is vital. Activities
should be addressed by sequentially examining the following specific aspects -
Facts
This aspect deals with what has occurred and should concentrate on data and facts.
Emotions
Participants should be encouraged to discuss how they feel about the experience and
concentrate on intuition, gut feelings, emotions and hunches.
Negatives
Everybody should be given the opportunity to discuss what did not fit and to be judgemental.
This aspect deals with negatives, caution, risk and why things went wrong.
Positives
This aspect should always be dealt with after the negatives and should address what went
well. It encourages optimistic thinking and deals with positives, benefits and merit.
Creativity
Deals with growth, ideas, alternative uses for what has been learned and future possibilities.
Focus
Finally the group should focus on whether the activity delivered and if all objectives were
achieved and the purpose accomplished. Focus should be maintained by managing thinking,
setting agendas and setting change for future activities.
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PRACTICAL BUSHWALKING
For members of a group to walk a long way with packs on their backs is as much about
mental attitude, self-discipline and teamwork as about physical effort.
Setting off
The first step is to agree on a time of departure and for all to be ready to depart on time with
all packs properly packed, being suitably dressed for the weather and taking a last look over
the campsite to make sure nothing has been left behind. The first leg of the route should be
appraised and maps should be ready.
Walking rhythm
After making a note of the time on your route plan card set off, walking at a slow, steady,
deliberate pace. Establish a walking rhythm be aware of it and try to maintain it.
Observations
Keep checking the landmarks and terrain with the map as you reach them. After you have
been walking for fifteen or twenty minutes it may be necessary to remove or adjust clothing.
It is vital to avoid clothing being soaked in perspiration.
Coping with steep terrain
When the trail becomes steep, shorten your stride but try to maintain the same steady rhythm.
If the route should become steeper it will be necessary to zigzag to reduce the steepness of the
climb. This enables the heel of the foot to be placed on the ground as it places a great strain on
the leg muscles if you only walk on the front of the foot.
Walking down steep terrain may not be exhausting but it can be uncomfortable and more slips
and falls occur while descending than while climbing. When you walk on flat ground you
automatically lean forward to maintain balance, when walking downhill there is often a
tendency to lean back, away from the slope, which can have upsetting results. Make sure that
you bend the knees to avoid jarring the joints and zigzag downhill in the same fashion as
walking up hill. By doing this, rhythm can be maintained and the whole of the foot can be
placed firmly on the ground to improve grip and reduce the chance of slipping.
Note:
Never run downhill and always be careful never to dislodge stones that may injure
anyone below.
Wet weather routine
If it should start to rain the whole group should decide to stop together and don wet weather
clothing. It is as important to prevent clothing being soaked with rain as it is with perspiration.
Schedules
If the group is falling behind time it may be necessary to reduce some of the breaks or meal
stops to catch up with the schedule. This should be discussed within the group to ensure that
any changes are not going to place unreal expectations on individuals. It may be that your
schedule is beyond the physical capabilities of the group or individuals within the group.
It is a good idea to be realistic when setting schedules and build in an amount of recovery
time into a route plan to cope with unforeseen circumstances or slow pace over the ground.
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Action at waypoints
Once you have completed each leg note the time and attend to all needs during the break such
as adjusting clothing and packs, checking the route plan, studying the map and visualising the
next leg before noting the time and resuming your journey.
Personal fitness
Much of the slow progress and unduly prolonged journey times associated with expeditions
lasting a few days are due to a lack of physical fitness. This is especially apparent when faced
with carrying a loaded pack.
Any physical exercise or training that will increase stamina will be beneficial before
undertaking an extended bushwalking expedition. The personal fitness levels of group
members should be accounted for in the planning stage.
JOURNAL WRITING
Journals can help to measure the process and task orientation of an expedition by providing
expedition members with a vehicle to focus in a rational way and then reflect on the processes
involved in the expedition. They can also be a source of enjoyment and interest for
recreational bushwalkers. Interest can be heightened by the inclusion of sketches, maps and
photographs.
Journal writing guidelines
The following are general guidelines to what might be written in a journal -
• Feelings on commencing the expedition.
• Understanding of the processes involved and what it is like to be involved.
• Performance as a group member.
• Feelings as a leader when [and if] required to lead.
• Ability and willingness to achieve the set objectives.
• Identifiable behaviour both of self and others.
• Any obvious areas of concern.
• Comments on planning, clothing, equipment and food.
• Any plan for future change not only for physical resources but also behaviours.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Before any trip the leader and the group should discuss and set their trip objectives. It is
important that these should be within the capabilities of the entire group.
Responsibilities of organisers
Organisers should realise the scope of their responsibilities and the duty-of-care questions that
may be asked by authorities should any form of accident or disaster overtake an expedition
they have organised or sanctioned.
Planning
A brainstorming session with leaders and group members is a good idea in the planning stages
of an expedition.
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Route plans
All members of the group should have a copy of the route plan and should be aware of any
hazardous sections and ensure all maps are current and accurate
Leaders
If there is a leader appointed they should be competent in all skills required for the trip.
Assistant leaders must be experienced enough to safely care for the party should something
unforeseen happen to the leader. Leaders and assistant leaders should be conversant with the
area in which the expedition is conducted.
Medical limitations
Any medical condition suffered by any member of the group or any limiting personal factors
or disabilities must be known to the leader prior to commencing the expedition.
Actions-on and safety
In the interests of safety ‘actions-on’ should be set for all foreseeable emergency situations
and all members of the group should know the agreed emergency procedures. An individual
emergency procedure card can be printed and issued.
Escape routes and actions should be set prior to departure and must be known to all members
of the group.
Notifications
Notifications need to be posted prior to departure and cancelled on return and Police in the
area of the walk notified. Police in Western Australia receive training in bushcraft and
survival skills and it is a good practice to discuss your plans with them.
Note:
If a walker or group is lost the nearest police should be notified immediately as it is the
role of police to organise land search operations in Western Australia.
PRINCIPLES OF MINIMUM IMPACT CAMPING
With the rise in popularity of outdoor recreation has come an increasing risk of damage to the
natural environment. Fortunately along with the increasing number of walkers a new
bushwalking ethic has also developed. The minimum impact philosophy is now being widely
adopted for bushwalking and expeditioning in Western Australia.
Campsites
Look for low impact campsites, sandy or hard surfaces are better than boggy or vegetated
areas. Where possible camp at an existing campsite rather than creating a new one. If a
campsite does not exist camp at least 50 metres away from watercourses and the track. Spend
only one or two nights at such a campsite. With modern camping equipment you should leave
a campsite looking as if you have never been there.
Fireplaces
Use only existing and safe fireplaces and remember that compared to campfires fuel stoves
are faster, cleaner and a lot easier to use in wet weather. If you need to use a fire for cooking
or warmth use an existing fireplace. Collect only deadwood and keep the fire small and
manageable.
Note:
Be aware of fire bans and how they relate to the use of stoves.
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Washing-up
Remember that detergents, toothpaste and soap [even biodegradable types] harm fish and
water life. Wash 50 metres away from lakes and streams and scatter the wash water so that it
will filter through the soil before returning to the stream. Avoid putting food scraps into
streams or lakes. Do not wash-up directly under the tap of a rainwater tank. Under no
circumstances wash in stock troughs on pastoral properties.
Rubbish disposal
Pack to minimise rubbish and avoid carrying potential rubbish such as bottles, cans and
excess wrappings. Do not burn, bash or bury rubbish as this disturbs the soil and the rubbish
is likely to be dug up and scattered by animals. Carry out all your rubbish.
Note:
If you come across other people's rubbish pick that up too.
Toilets
Where there is a toilet please use it, in areas without toilets bury your faecal waste. Choose a
spot at least 100 metres away from camp-sites and watercourses and dig a hole 15cm deep
within the soil’s organic layer [a hand trowel is useful for this] and bury all faecal waste.
FOOD AND COOKING
The need for a balanced diet becomes increasingly important as the length of an expedition
increases. For journeys lasting up to four or five days following normal eating habits will
ensure that the diet is adequately balanced. Probably too much thought is given to achieving
variety in the menu instead of paying more attention to the need to maintain an adequate
intake of liquids, especially in hot weather. Considerably more energy than usual will be
expended during a camping expedition, and so more food will need to be eaten to maintain a
balance.
Planning menus for bushwalking expeditions
When planning a menu a balance needs to be achieved where you will need to remember that
since the food will have to be carried too much will add unnecessary weight to the load. If too
little food is taken then the group will go hungry and the efficiency of the group may be
impaired. The prime need is to pack as much energy into the smallest possible weight and
volume. Increasing the amount of carbohydrates and fats and by using dehydrated, freeze
dried and canned food usually achieves this.
Supermarkets carry an endless variety of dehydrated foods and freeze dried meals so if there
is a plentiful supply of water there is no need to carry the extra weight of canned food. The
packaging of such products is good, they are quick to prepare and usually only require the
addition of water. Check how long the food takes to cook and wherever possible choose those
that cook in the shortest possible time.
Only carry the foods you like and enjoy and keep all meals uncomplicated and simple to
prepare, meals such as soups, stews, casseroles and pasta dishes are ideal. To ensure that you
drink sufficiently especially in hot weather always carry more tea, coffee, milk and sugar than
you think you will need. Fruit flavoured drink powders and cordials are also useful.
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Breakfast
Bushwalking diet is very much a matter of individual preference and the most important
consideration is to make it right for you.
Most bushwalkers begin the day with a substantial breakfast and no day would be complete
without it. Others prefer to do without washing up greasy pans and prefer cereals or muesli
that only requires the addition of hot or cold milk followed by biscuits or bread and jam.
Lunch
Lunches do not usually play an important part in most bushwalkers dietary routine and a little
and often is the rule. Cheese and biscuits or biscuits with some spread such as jam or peanut
butter are popular as are nuts and dried fruit supplemented with chocolate or sweets. These
are a concentrated form of energy and can be eaten on the move. Others prefer sandwiches
and fresh fruit.
Dinner
The evening meal is usually the main meal of the day and even when limited to one stove and
two or three pans it is possible with a little practice to prepare a hot, filling three course meal
in a very short time.
A typical meal might consist of a soup, stew, casserole or pasta dish followed by dessert [hot
or cold] or cheese with biscuits and coffee.
A visit to the local supennarket will reveal a great variety of dehydrated meats, textured
vegetable protein, soybean, potato, peas and other vegetables, pre-cooked rice, noodles and
various pastas and instant soups. There is also a wide selection of whips, mousses and instant
desserts that require the addition of cold water or milk and preparations that only require hot
milk to turn them into nourishing desserts.
Note:
Plan your menu ahead and experiment with different foods by cooking and eating
them at home.
Preparing a meal
When the tent has been pitched and you are ready to prepare your meal, lay out all the
ingredients and allocate the pans in which they are to be cooked.
Some prefer to cook a course, eat it while it is hot and then prepare the next course. Others
prepare the whole meal and then eat it.
Whichever you choose it is essential to economise on the use of fuel and this can be done by
planning the order in which the food is cooked and eaten.
After the preparation of the main course water can be boiled for washing up and for coffee or
tea. After the meal the experienced camper will wash up, tidy up, and pack away gear that
will not be needed during the night.
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WAP A RATION PACK -8 HOUR FOR 1 PERSON
These ration packs are produced and issued by the Command and Land Operations Unit at the
Western Australia Police Academy and are available in two menus and both have been
designed to ensure food and vitamin needs are sufficient to meet daily requirements when
involved in practical activities in the outdoors.
They have been designed to meet the requirements for a day-walk that does not involve an
overnight camp. Each menu contains morning tea, lunch, afternoon tea and trail snacks. With
some adjustments to the tea and coffee components both menus are suitable for days of total
lire ban.
In keeping with the need for minimum impact on the environment these ration packs are
issued in a pre-packed cardboard box and all litter from the pack is to be placed in the plastic
bag contained there-in and discarded on return from your trip. No litter is to be burned and/or
buried in the field.
An adequate fluid intake is encouraged throughout the day.
MENU 1
MENU 2
1 Can Tuna
1 Can Meat
4 Serves Crispbread
4 Serves Crispbread
1 Single Serve Sweet Biscuits
1 Single Serve Sweet Biscuits
2 Sachets Jam/Honey
2 Sachets Jam/Honey
2 Serves Tea
2 Serves Tea
2 Serves Coffee
2 Serves Coffee
8 Serves Sugar
8 Serves Sugar
1 Can Fruit
1 Can Fruit
1 Muesli Bar
1 Muesli Bar
1 Serve Cake
1 Serve Cake
1 Packet Sultanas/Sweets/Chocolate
1 Packet Sultanas/Sweets/Chocolate
2 Serves Cheese
2 Serves Cheese
1 Plastic Knife
1 Plastic Knife
1 Plastic Fork
1 Plastic Fork
1 Plastic Spoon
1 Plastic Spoon
2 Sachets Salt
2 Sachets Salt
2 Sachets Pepper
2 Sachets Pepper
1 Serve UHT Milk
1 Serve UHT Milk
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WAP A RATION PACK - 24 HOUR FOR 1 PERSON
These ration packs are produced and issued by the Command and Land Operations Unit at the
Western Australia Police Academy and are available in two menus and both have been
designed to ensure food and vitamin needs are sufficient to meet daily requirements when
involved in practical activities in the outdoors.
They have been designed to meet the requirements for a bushwalk that involves an overnight
camp. Each menu contains breakfast, morning tea, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner and trail
snacks. With some adjustments both menus can be made suitable for days of total lire ban.
In keeping with the need for minimum impact on the environment these ration packs are
issued in a pre-packed cardboard box and all litter from the pack is to be placed in the plastic
bag contained there-in and discarded on return from your trip. No litter is to be burned and/or
buried in the field.
An adequate fluid intake is encouraged throughout the day.
MENU 1
MENU 2
1 Single Serve Packet Breakfast Cereal
1 Single Serve Packet Breakfast Cereal
1 Can Tuna
1 Can Meat
8 Serves Crispbread
8 Serves Crispbread
1 Single Serve Sweet Biscuits
1 Single Serve Sweet Biscuits
2 Sachets Jam/Honey/Vegemite
2 Sachets Jam/Honey/Vegemite
4 Serves Tea
4 Serves Tea
4 Serves Coffee
4 Serves Coffee
20 Serves Sugar
20 Serves Sugar
2 Cans Fruit
2 Cans Fruit
1 Muesli Bar
1 Muesli Bar
1 Serve Cake
1 Serve Cake
1 Packet Sultanas
1 Packet Sultanas
1 Packet Sweets/Chocolate
1 Packet Sweets/Chocolate
2 Serves Cheese
2 Serves Cheese
1 Freeze-dry or Can Meal
1 Freeze-dry or Can Meal
1 Plastic Knife
1 Plastic Knife
1 Plastic Fork
1 Plastic Fork
1 Plastic Spoon
1 Plastic Spoon
2 Sachets Salt
2 Sachets Salt
2 Sachets Pepper
2 Sachets Pepper
2 Serves UHT Milk
2 Serves UHT Milk
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RECREA TIONAL 2 - DAY RA TION PA CK FOR 1 PERSON
This has been designed for bushwalkers for a lightweight 2-day bushwalk and takes into
account the fact that a well cooked meal resembling nonnal meals can add to the enjoyment
of a trip and maintain morale.
It must be remembered that cooking is a skill that must be learned and this food pack
encourages experimentation and practice in preparation using everyday items so that
preparation methods and times are known before setting out.
As you are carrying this food weight and bulk is important and a good rule is to ensure that
food weight does not exceed 1kg per day and provides close to the daily requirement of 15
kilojoules of energy required for bushwalking.
In keeping with the need for minimum impact on the environment food should be packed in a
plastic bag and all litter from the pack should be replaced in the plastic bag and discarded on
return from your trip. No litter is to be burned and/or buried in the field.
An adequate fluid intake is encouraged throughout the day
Food item
Grams
per day
Total
weight
How packed
2 Cereal
60
120
Individual packs
Continental bacon
60
120
Wrapped in cloth
2 eggs
60
120
Section of egg carton
4 Biscuits
60
120
Individual packets
Bread
40
40
Plastic bag
4 Margarine or butter
30
60
Pre-packed serves
2 Cheese
60
120
Aluminium foil
4 Honey or jam
30
60
Pre-packed serves
4 Peanut butter
30
60
Pre-packed serves
1 Instant soup
15
15
Foil sachet
1 Freeze-dry meat
70
70
Foil pouch
Fresh vegetables
40
40
Plastic bag
Dried fruit
60
60
Plastic bag
Sweets
30
60
Plastic bag
Chocolate
60
120
Individual bars
Sultanas
60
120
Packet
Milo / Tea / Coffee
30
60
Individual serves
Sugar
90
180
Plastic bag
Salt / Pepper
6
12
Plastic container
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CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
The careful selection of clothing and equipment is not only important where safety is
concerned but is vital to your comfort and enjoyment. This does not mean buying the most
expensive, but seeking the advice of those experienced in the outdoors and then making the
right choices.
Many authorities have pools of camping equipment that may be borrowed or hired. It is a
good idea to do this as it gives you an opportunity to test and gain experience of a variety of
equipment before buying your own.
All walkers should have their own clothing, wet weather gear, personal items and emergency
equipment. It is desirable that all should eventually have their own pack and sleeping bag.
Use of check lists
Walkers should make a checklist of equipment when they prepare for their first journey. This
list should be kept in a notebook and used to check equipment before departure on any future
walks. With all the items that need to be carried it is easy to forget one item that may turn out
to be vital.
The list should be made under the headings of personal clothing, personal and emergency
equipment, personal camping equipment and group camping equipment.
Personal clothing
Clothing must be capable of protecting you under the worst conditions that may be
encountered. The rapidly changing conditions and the unpredictability of these changes makes
the problem of choosing suitable clothing all the more difficult. The solution lies in carrying
extra clothing and then adding or removing layers according to the weather and the amount of
physical exertion being undertaken.
Insulation is provided by the air trapped between the fibres of the cloth and between the layers
of gannents. Therefore two light jumpers weighing 500 grams each provide more insulation
than a heavier jumper weighing a kilogram. There is also the added advantage that you can
wear one only and regulate your temperature.
Clothing loses most of its insulating qualities when wet. Whether the soaking comes from rain
or from perspiration it is essential to keep clothing as dry as possible. This means reducing
sweating when working hard by opening or removing clothing and wearing waterproof
clothing when it is raining hard. There are several materials that retain much of their
insulating properties when wet, one is wool and another is synthetic fibre-pile. A mixture of
wool and synthetic fibre is usually more suited to bushwalking.
Whatever fabrics are used it is customary to have an inner layer of clothing to absorb
perspiration, a middle layer to provide insulation and an outer layer to keep the wind and wet
weather out.
Garments should be loose fitting either to trap air or allow it to circulate as the need arises.
Outer layer gannents should be controllable so it is possible to open them up or close air
circulation down by fastenings at the cuffs, waist and neck.
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Footwear
Boots should be light with flexible, cleated rubber, environmentally friendly soles thick
enough to prevent sharp stones being felt and to absorb the pounding associated with
bushwalking. The uppers should be made of leather, preferably in one piece with the smooth
side out so that they can be polished. A sewn in tongue [bellows type] will prevent water
getting in and a combination of D-rings and hooks will make it easier to put them on and take
them off.
When you buy boots always take the socks that you are going to use with the boots to wear
when you try them on. Even light summer boots need breaking-in so wear them whenever
possible and remember that liberal applications of a suitable wax preparation will help the
process.
Once boots are broken in regular applications of a suitable leather dressing after use is all that
is required to keep them supple and waterproof.
Many bushwalkers wear joggers and while these are adequate they do not offer protection
from water and sharp stones or give ankle support. Joggers are often carried as spare footwear
and are useful around camp. Thongs are not recommended.
Note:
Never borrow boots and always seek advice before buying new ones.
Socks
Socks have to cushion the feet, absorb perspiration and provide insulation. Socks specifically
designed for bushwalking are recommended. Frequent washing is necessary.
Underwear
This is largely personal preference although pure cotton is often the better choice. Thennal
underwear is popular in cold conditions.
Shirts
Tee-shirts are popular but they do not have a collar to shield the neck from the sun. A ‘polo’
type shirt with a collar is better. Tank tops and singlets are not suitable for bushwalking as
they expose the shoulders to the sun. They also encourage chafing and rubbing from the pack.
In colder conditions long sleeved flannelette or wool mixture shirts are effective and are
usually good value for money. In hot conditions a cotton shirt with a collar and long sleeves is
recommended.
Trousers
Trousers should be loose fitting and suited to bushwalking and for this reason cotton army-
type pants are popular. Denim jeans are generally unsuitable as they are usually cut too tight,
give little protection in wind and rain, become heavy when wet and take a long time to dry.
Headgear
In the wanner months some fonn of sun hat is essential. It must have a wide brim and as well
as giving protection to the head and face it should also give some protection to the neck. In
the cold much body heat is lost through the head and it is essential to protect the head to stay
warm. A wool or synthetic ‘beanie’ or balaclava is recommended.
Gaiters
Specially designed bushwalking gaiters help keep the feet dry in bad weather and when
conditions are soggy underfoot. They also save the lower legs from being scratched, keep
grass seeds out of socks and boots and give protection from snakebite.
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Wet weather clothing
A waterproof jacket provides an outer shell that protects against the elements. Being
waterproof, condensation is inevitable and the clothing underneath is bound to become wet
through perspiration so these garments should not be worn continually but carried in the pack
and only worn when required.
Rain jackets made out of fabrics that ‘breathe’ can overcome this problem. A jacket with full
zip is preferable and a stonn flap should protect the zip. The jacket must be large enough to
accommodate all the clothing you are likely to wear underneath and long enough to come well
down over the hips almost to the knees. A hood, underarm vents, adjustable cuffs and a waist
draw-cord will provide maximum control of air circulation.
Waterproof trousers should be able to be put on over boots and it is essential to ensure that
they are wide enough in the leg or have zips at the ankles.
Gore-Tex fabric
Essentially a water repellent, protective outer nylon shell glued to a highly breathable
membrane of expanded Teflon. With three layer Gore-Tex fabric there is another layer of fine
mesh bonded to the inside of the garment that protects the Teflon laminate from the inside and
increases the rigidity and durability of the fabric. Because of its expansion process the
laminate has more than a billion microscopic pores per square centimetre. Each of them is big
enough to let water vapour [perspiration] out but too small to let water droplets [rain] in. The
result is an extremely durable fabric that is waterproof, windproof and breathable.
Helly-Tech fabric
A waterproof, breathable fabric that works using a combination of very durable micro-porous
and hydrophilic coatings. The coating next to the wearer’s body is the hydrophilic layer which
serves two functions: it draws water away from the insulating layers closest to the body
towards the external environment and also protects the micro-porous layer between it and the
outside shell from body oils and other contaminants. The micro-porous layer forms a highly
moisture permeable matrix that binds the shell fabric and the hydrophilic coating. The type of
face fabric used is also important to the overall performance of Helly-Tech fabric.
Mont Hydronaute fabric
A water repellent nylon face fabric coated with a hydrophilic polyurethane compound that
maintains a waterproof, windproof and breathable barrier between the wearer and the
elements. The latest generation Hydronaute fabric also has a fine mesh bonded to the inside of
the garment to improve durability.
PERSONAL & EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
Along with the clothing that will be worn or carried in the pack there are a small number of
items of emergency equipment that should always be carried by every member of the party.
The amount of equipment should be kept to the barest minimum or the exercise becomes self-
defeating as the increased weight leads to fatigue.
Essential items
Spare clothing may range from a spare jumper and socks for a day journey to complete
changes of clothing for a camping expedition. All group members should carry a small torch,
spare bulb, batteries and waterproof matches. A plastic whistle should be carried as well as a
pencil and notebook.
Emergency Rations, Personal Survival and First-aid Kits
Chocolate, nuts and dried fruit are a good source of energy and a quantity should be carried as
emergency rations. A personal survival kit and personal first aid kit should also be carried.
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INDIVIDUAL CAMPING EQUIPMENT
Expedition packs
Your pack should be large enough to hold all your equipment and suit your needs. A tough
cordura or canvas is suitable and you should try the pack on fully loaded paying particular
attention to the waist belt, shoulder straps and harness adjustability. Shoulder straps should be
wide and well padded. To take some of the weight off your shoulders a well-padded
adjustable hip belt is essential. Modern packs have adjustable back lengths and are
ergonomically designed with an internal frame that allows natural body movement.
Single Compartment Expedition Pack
This type of expedition pack is a rugged, simple expedition pack designed for schools,
outdoors clubs, youth organisations, equipment pools and hire agencies. It is generally is
made from canvas and cordura in 551t, 601t and 651t capacity. They are fitted with an
adjustable harness system and weigh approximately 2kg.
The bag features have generally been chosen primarily for minimum maintenance, and
lifetime economy. A throat is avoided by cutting the main bag high. They have a simple,
laddered and lined lid and highly effective back pocket that completely eliminates zips. The
natural wet weather perfonnance of these canvas packs is good insurance against novice users
having to suffer the consequences of wet gear.
Twin Compartment Expedition Pack
A twin compartment pack whose capacity and comfort simplifies the load carrying problems
of ambitious bushwalkers when factors like the need to carry fresh water, additional food,
cold weather clothing or specialised equipment arise. These are usually made from canvas and
cordura in 801t, 901t and 951t capacity. They are fitted with an adjustable harness system and
weigh approximately 2.5kg
The zippered access into the lower part of the pack is useful when early starts and long days
limit the opportunities to dry damp sleeping bags and other gear normally stowed low in the
pack. The zip is usually curved to facilitate access and located low enough on the pack so as
to not restrict back-pocket capacity. A simple, yet strong shelf separates the two
compartments. Spaces each side of this shelf allow long items such as tent arch sets to be
stored inside the bag. In some the compartment divider can be dropped down converting the
pack to a single compartment configuration.
Sleeping bags
It is impossible for one sleeping bag to cope with all extremes and most bushwalkers settle for
an all-season bag. Outer material is usually downproof rip-stop nylon with the inner made
from nylon. In between there is a synthetic fibre filling that provides very high thennal
insulation for its weight. This fibre has an exceptional rebound factor allowing it to be
compacted into a small space and is warmer than down filling when wet.
An inner cotton or polyester bag must be used with hired or borrowed sleeping bags and they
should be used in down bags to keep the bag clean. An inner bag also gives you more
versatility in very hot weather as you can sleep in it on top of your sleeping bag.
Sleeping mats
A closed cell foam sleeping mat or self-inflating mattress is essential and as the foam does not
absorb water they can be carried on the outside of the pack.
Water
Each member of the party should carry their own water and between one and four litres will
be needed per day depending on local conditions.
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In-camp gear
Each individual needs a plastic mug, a steel or plastic plate and cutlery. Toilet gear should
include soap and towel, toothbrush and toilet paper. All members must carry rubbish bags.
GROUP CAMPING EQUIPMENT
Tents
A tent is the typical symbol of camping, but it is much more than that. In the most extreme
environments the correct selection of shelter is often the most important decision you can
make. Of course, even if it's not life or death and for most of us happily it is not, the right
choice does make all the difference if you want to have an enjoyable time away from the
comforts of home.
There are dozens of lightweight tents available for the bushwalker to choose from and they
come in all shapes and sizes. Many authorities have tents that they lend or hire out. Before
you buy a tent borrow one of the same kind so you can examine the quality of construction
and try it out for size and convenience.
The tents used on expeditions usually hold two or three persons with the load being shared
between the occupants. It is usual to have a breathable nylon or cotton inner with a waterproof
nylon fly and a slightly heavier, waterproof nylon floor. If a borrowed tent is to be used, pitch
it before the start of your venture to ensure it is complete and that you know how to erect it.
Always return it complete and dry.
The Dome Tent
These are compact, easy to carry and usually have two diagonal tent poles with a vestibule.
They are easy and fast to assemble and are best fitted with pole clips. They are usually
constructed with a waterproof polyester fly and waterproof nylon floor. Both the fly and floor
should be tape seam sealed for immediate use.
They are suitable for most camping and bushwalking expeditions in Western Australia.
The Tunnel Tent
This type of tent is recommended as a compact 2-person, ultra-lightweight, double-skinned,
expedition tent with good ventilation. This tent is suitable for use in wann weather conditions
as well as for travel in snow, across exposed country and in severe weather. The design is a
classic two arch tapered tunnel and careful attention has usually been paid to equalising skin
stress over the outer tent surface and to avoiding unnecessarily large areas of unsupported
fabric.
While access into the tent is usually provided at each side of the main arch it is impractical to
provide it at the small end. Both ends of the outer and inner can still be fully unzipped
however for ventilation. Gear stowed under the vestibule should not hinder movement in and
out of the tent.
Cooking Stoves
Cooking should be approached as an enjoyable part of expeditions and stoves need to be light
and compact to carry in a pack and not too expensive. They should be simple to assemble,
operate and clean. They should also require no special maintenance and be easy to light. Even
in the harshest of weather conditions you need to be able to easily light the stove and
successfully cook food or heat water in a short period of time.
Stainless steel cooking pots, pans and kettles are recommended.
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Methylated Spirit Stove
These stoves are very popular and serve a dual function of stove and cooking set. They are
easy to light and there are no complicated ignition devices. By turning the ventilation holes
into the wind you optimise the oxygen supply to the burner, which increases the efficiency of
the unit. These stoves are very stable with pots set deeply in the upper windshield. Handles,
pots, kettles and a frypan, which doubles as a lid are included in the unit.
Note:
Remember that methylated spirit burns with an invisible flame in sunlight and care
must be taken to ensure that the flame is completely extinguished and the burner
cooled before refuelling.
The Trangia No.25-8 complete camping stove
Multi Fuel Stove
The multi fuel stove is ideally suited to extremes of weather and they usually have an extra
flame control valve that allows immediate control over a very broad range of temperatures.
They are fully field maintainable, extremely compact, burn shellite, unleaded petrol, aviation
fuel, diesel, and kerosene along with a few others. The best are fitted with a ‘shaker’ jet for
self-cleaning.
Carrying liquid fuel
Liquid fuel should only be carried in an Australian Standard approved bottle with a secure
screw top.
Portable Gas Stove
These are extremely simple to operate and are favoured for day walks and situations where
cooking needs are minimal. Features on the best of them include an automated match-less
lighting system and specially designed burner grates. They generally boil water in 3-5 minutes
and usually burn for one hour on high or two hours on low using a standard gas cartridge
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EXPEDITION EQUIPMENT CHECK LIST
Clothing
Boots, joggers, socks, underwear, trousers, shirts, jumpers, jacket, headgear, gloves,
waterproof jacket and waterproof over-pants.
Emergency equipment
Maps and map case, watch, compass, whistle, emergency rations, matches, torch with spare
globe and batteries, knife, survival kit, first aid kit, note book and pencil
Personal equipment
Backpack, sleeping bag, sleeping mat, inner bag, toilet gear, toilet paper, water bottle, cup,
plate, knife, fork and spoon.
Group equipment
Tent, stove with fuel, group water container, dish washing, soap pads or nylon scouring pad,
trowel, cloth or tea towel and garbage bags.
PACKING AND LOAD CARRYING
Packs are rarely waterproof and experienced walkers solve this problem by using a heavy
gauge plastic bag inside the pack as a waterproof liner. In addition every item of clothing
carried in the pack along with the sleeping bag and the food should be protected individually
by placing them inside plastic bags and sealing them.
Pack weight
Pack weights should not exceed a quarter of your body weight and the nearer this load is to
your centre of gravity the less strain and fatigue it will impose on your body. Modern packs
are designed to do this and you can assist by placing heavy items high up in your pack and as
near to the body as possible.
Considerable experience is needed to keep pack weight to a minimum and to avoid anything
but the essentials being carried. Inexperienced walkers are often inconsistent in their attitude
to weight. Packs must always be weighed before departure and it is a good idea to keep
placing them on the bathroom scales while you are gathering your equipment. In this way if
items have to be eliminated it will not have to be done in a hurry before setting out.
Packing is largely common sense but it is necessary to balance conflicting needs. Since the
‘last in - first out’ rule applies, items that will be needed en-route should be placed in the side
pockets or at the top of the pack. Wet weather gear, spare clothes such as jumper, gloves or
headgear and food that is to be eaten during the journey should be ready to hand. The sleeping
bag and clothing that will not be needed during the walk and which are bulky but lightweight
should go to the bottom of the pack. Heavy items or shared group equipment such as the tent
and stove should be divided equally between the occupants of the tent and can go into the
pack next with the rest of the gear on top.
Many problems arise from packing at the last moment and then throwing in whatever comes
to hand. Forethought is required and your kit should be assembled well in advance for the
expedition. Planning to do the job well always takes longer.
Note:
All gear other than sleeping mats should be carried inside the pack.
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CAMPCRAFT
Camping improves with practice and the ability to provide food and shelter under all
conditions is a skill worth acquiring. It will give you confidence, satisfaction and enjoyment
as well as allowing you to participate in other outdoor activities.
Choosing a campsite
Choosing the right campsite is not only important for your comfort and enjoyment but can
affect your wellbeing. Finding shelter from the wind and prevailing weather should always be
uppermost in your mind when using a lightweight tent. This usually means seeking lower
ground using hollows or the leeside of a ridge, hill or trees as a windbreak between your tent
and where the wind or weather is coming from. Other factors to be considered when choosing
a campsite include making sure it is free from hazards such as flooding, falling rocks or tree
branches. Where possible make sure it is reasonably near to water and offers the prospect of a
reasonable night's comfortable sleep.
Note:
Remember; 1600 hours [4 pm] is a good time to make camp, 1700 hours [5 pm] is
running it a bit tight and 1800 hours [6pm] is leaving it too late.
Pitching tents
The ground under the tent needs to be as clear and level as possible. If there is a slope then it
is best to sleep with your feet down hill. The ground needs to be reasonably dry and soft
enough to sleep on and to take tent pegs. Remove any object that might puncture the tent
floor. Pegs need to be driven into the ground at an angle of 45°. Guy lines and pegs should be
run out in line with the seams and heavier or larger pegs used for the main guys. If the ground
is too soft then stones will need to be placed on top of the pegs. The tent should be pitched so
the entrance faces away from the wind.
Note:
Tents should never be pitched under trees.
Living in a tent
When two or three people are living in a small tent personal organisation and tidiness is
essential. Campers should be prepared for the worst with equipment no longer needed being
restored to the pack. Everything should be in its place and torches handy before turning in.
Sleep with your head to the door of the tent to allow easy exit in an emergency.
Establishing a routine
A routine should be established between the inhabitants of a tent and the question of who does
what should be sorted out on reaching the campsite. No matter how footsore and weary the
group may be it is good practice to pitch the tent when reaching an overnight campsite.
Daily Routine
Morning
1. Wake party.
2. Light fires/set up stoves.
3. Take down and pack tents and shelters.
4. Attend to personal hygiene.
5. Breakfast.
6. Fill and check water containers/bottles.
7. Attend to first-aid and inspect feet.
8. Check and pack gear.
9. Conduct a group briefing and set off.
Afternoon
1 . Lunch.
2. Check and pack gear.
3. Conduct a group briefing and set off.
4. Set up overnight campsite.
5. Attend to first-aid and inspect feet.
6. Dinner.
7. Attend to personal hygiene.
8. Conduct a group de-briefing.
9. Write up track logs and journals.
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Cooking
In dry weather cooking can take place in a sheltered place away from the tent making access
to the tent easier. In wet weather cooking should be done outside the tent under the shelter of
the flysheet or vestibule. There should never be any need to cook inside the tent. While one
person, having removed boots and water-proof clothing cooks in the shelter of the doorway
the others in the group can ensure that everything needed for the meal and the washing up
afterwards is within easy reach of the person doing the cooking.
Note:
Boots or outside footwear and wet clothing should not be worn inside the tent. The
lightweight floor of the tent must be treated with great care.
HYGIENE
Hygiene is an important aspect of expeditions and camp discipline and personal cleanliness
needs to remain at a high level. Face, hands and feet should be washed and teeth cleaned at
the end of each day. Socks need to be washed frequently and can be dried if the weather is
fine by attaching them to the outside of the pack while walking.
Water supplies must be kept clean and dirty washing up water should be poured into a hole
made with a trowel in soft ground well away from the water source. Dirty or greasy water
must never be thrown back into creeks or waterholes and personal washing should be done
away from the source of drinking water.
Do not wash-up or use soap in stock troughs. All litter must be removed from the campsite
and carried out by the group. It is no longer acceptable to bash, bum and bury rubbish. Be
prepared to remove your rubbish by carrying a few plastic garbage bags with you.
WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS
No matter how much information there may be on a weather map it must always be read with
an eye to local geographic conditions. With a little experience it is possible to predict when it
will be wise to stay and when it will be possible to venture out.
Sky Signs
For all the scientific tricks there may be up our modern sleeves, we still rely for local
forecasting on some of the weather lore of our forefathers. It is still true to say that a red or
clear sky at sunset usually predicts a fine day to follow, while a grey or dark cloudy evening
or a diffuse watery sky suggests a wet or windy tomorrow.
When clouds break up at sunrise, or the sun comes up through haze into a clear sky, it usually
heralds a fine day, but the early red sky or a colourless sun, especially if there is a rainbow or
halo around it, warns of rain and unsettled conditions. The larger the halo, the sooner the rain
will arrive. The behaviour of the barometer should not be neglected when making such
judgements.
Behaviour Of The Barometer
Rapid falls in pressure always precede rain and storms, and maybe a change in wind direction,
squalls or the imminent arrival of a cold front. If at the same time the temperature is above
normal and the humidity high or rising, unsettled weather and rain are usually on the way.
Once the change is past, cooler and clearer weather will follow.
When the barometer steadies and begins to rise, clearing weather comes quite rapidly.
Remember however that any really rapid rise in barometric pressure after bad weather can
bring wind and unstable conditions instead of the expected fine weather.
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When the barometer begins to fall slowly after a spell during which it was steady, the area is
likely to be visited by unsettled and wet weather, and a halo round the sun or moon will
usually confirm that forecast. No matter how long it stays fine as the barometer goes lower, it
is certain wind and rain will eventually come. Usually a high barometric reading brings settled
conditions.
WEATHER PATTERNS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA
It is possible by examining weather patterns over a period of time to predict the kind of
weather that may be experienced at any particular time of the year. But even when it is based
on an average of the statistics remember that such forecasting is never infallible.
January - February - March
Western Australia is so extensive it samples all possible climates except perhaps alpine. In
January, low-pressure troughs bring hot continental winds. February brings great contrasts in
rainfall, with occasional tropical cyclones and heavy rain. Apart from these, the month is quite
dry, but the humidity can be high. The rainfall is heavier in March, but mainly in the north
where there is a risk of rivers flooding.
April - May
The high-pressure belt begins to drift northward in April, and westerly winds become more
general in the southwest. The rainfall also increases. The increase continues through May,
when the westerlies become more general, with a few fogs developing.
June
The high pressure belt continues to drift northward through June and it brings the low
pressure systems closer to the coast in the south, increasing the rainfall still more until it is the
heaviest of any month in the year, especially near the south coast.
July - August
July is the coldest month of the year in the state. There are occasional gales and flooding in
the southwest, but elsewhere there is generally a noticeable decrease in rainfall. The high-
pressure systems begin to move southward in August, but the weather remains similar to that
of July. In the north it is the driest month of the year, but it is still fairly wet in the southwest,
with occasional flooding.
September - October - November
In September, the low-pressure systems are more southerly, and the winds move westerly in
both the north and south, but easterly in central coastal areas. There are likely to be some
gales in the southwest, but little rain. The belt of high pressure systems moves farther south in
October, and by November is in southern waters, but occasionally it moves north enough to
bring westerly winds and showers.
December
There can be cyclones during this month and these are even more likely in the north-west
when there are low-pressure systems in the Bight, and easterly winds farther north. The
tropical areas have more westerly winds and much more cloud at this time, but it remains hot.
Summary
On the whole, Western Australian weather is under the influence of a belt of high-pressure
systems that crosses the north of the State in winter and brings fine weather so long as it
remains. This belt drifts southwards for summer and takes it’s fine weather with it. Cyclones
form from the low-pressure systems that move in to fill the area left.
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