INDEX PART 1 Evasion PART 2 Survival Navigation PART 3 Improvisation and Escape Kit PART 4 Contacting Agents and Use of Escape Lines PART 5 Dog Evasion PART 6 Wild Foods PART 7 Snails PART 8 Animal Traps and Snares PART 9 Skinning PART XO Fishing PART 11 Water Survival Still PART 12 Fires PART 13 Shelter PART 14 Primitive Medicine (i)PART 1 EVASION EVASION INTRODUCTION 1. This precis is designed as an aide to Evasioa, It does not constitute rules. The necessity to evade in the present day could occur from: a. A breakout from PW Camp. b. A breakout from a surrounded position in amall numbers or as an individual . c. As a result of tecticsl nuclear atrikea and the eventual disorganisa- tion of Corps and divisional boundariea. MOTS BY DAY 2. Movta whether of individuela or groupa must be planned in advance. Mov- ing by day ia inadvisable, but sometimes unavoidable i.e. after a PW breakout or when an extremely long distance muat he covered. If this ia the case: a. Put on a bold front, do not appear 'furtive', this arouses suspici on. b. Obtain unobtruaiva clothing and assume a definite identity if possible, i.e. carry a spade etc. c. Keep clean (shave if possible). d. Make use of e bicycle and trains. The destination of train is often marked on the bottom left bend corner of trucks. Keep sway from stations. e. Rivers are a possible means of escape, but avoid large ones as they will be watched. f. Beware of children and d oja. MOY1 BY NIGBT 3. 90% of evasive moves should be by night. But darkness often breeds over confidence. There will be a compromise between taking the easiest route and avoiding going where the enemy expect you. Study and memoriae your route in order to avoid using light to map read. 4. Never move on roads. If crossing a road, locate sentries and if necessary use a diversion. (Cross immediately after a vehicle has passed, noiae and light. ) 5. Never cross bridges. Try improvising rafts in order to keep clothing dry, or swim. 6. In bills avoid using ridges aa you are likely to be silhouetted and remember you can be seen from below for a greater distance than you can see. After crossing a skyline change direction on a downwards slope and look behind to see you are not being followed. 7. Keep away from population of any kind. ALWAYS have at least one emergency RV. Know how long it will be open. When you are making for RV after enemy contact, make aure you are not followed. 8. Use a leading scout as far forward as possible even when only two men are together. 9. Avoid walking in mud, through standing crops or any place where obvious tracks will be left. Leaving litter or any signs of occupation in a Lying-up area is asking for trouble. • 10. Danger Zones. The following points will help evasion in dangerous a. Cordons. These are relatively easy to pass at night. If you watch for up to 2 hours some enemy soldier will give away his position by noise, movement or normal sentry relief. Once a position is located pass as near to it as you safely can. b. Cordons will nearly always be near roads because enemy transport can be quickly deployed off them. This will not however be the case if the enemy have available helicopters in quantity. If they are heard expect cordons to be in low ground or to use flares from high ground. Para 6 above becomes very important. c. Cross roads immediately after vehicle using light which has passed. These will blind enemy sentries who seldom, if ever shut their eyes to the light. d. Imitate silhouette of enemy sentries for so far as possible. In particular headgear. Learn at least one phrase in his language like •Don't shoot you bloody fool*, but you must be able to say it fluently. LYING UP POSITION (LUP) 11. Selection. Do not use isolated cover, particularly if it is marked on a map. A thick hedge or long graaa if often better than small woods. 12. Entry a. Whenever possible after dark. b. Be careful not to leave tracks (see para 11(d)). If possible reorganise position at first light. 13. Siting a. Concealed from ground and air. b. If possible only one good approach. c. Easy escape route. d. Near water if you intend to stay more than one day. Otherwise take water in with you during the night. e. A good location for an LUP would be long grasa, vegetation or scrub in an isolated position. 14. Procedure in LUP a. Keep quiet and still. Have a sentry if in a group of more than two. 2 b c. Bury all refuse. d. Kit always packed and if in poasession of weapons, clean one at a t line. i e. Men always ready to move quickly i.e. compass, rations, map on body. Weapon at hand. £. Emergency RV must be known and withdrawal route planned. g. Before evacuating site search for any avoidable trace of occupation. h. Smoking must be controlled i.e. smoke showing by day, cigarette end glowing by night. PARTISANS OR AGENTS 15. There are basically two types of contacts an escapee can make: a. An organised contact after a PW breakout, with prior knowledge of RVs. b. A chance contact, not previously planned, with a reliable source i. e. a doctor or priest in an enemy occupied area. 16. The civilian agent if caught has more to loae than you so after making contact : a. Make up your mind to trust or distrust him. b. Ensure RVs are secure and that you have a drill at them i.e. one man entering before remainder when in a group. c. Do all the agent saya, but never say who previous contact was. d. In the case of 16(b) ensure that he is alone before contacting. e. Have an emergency RV in case something goes wrong. 17. It is the personal determination of the escapee which will ensure his success. Compliance with the above principles will only serve to make the task easier. PART 2 SURVIVAL NAVIGATION SURVIVAL NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION t 1. By Survival Navigation it is meant navigation without the normal aids such as a compass and map. It should be considered a bonus if, after the earliest stages of capture and searching, one is still left with these naviga- tional aids. 2. This precis introduces the natural and regular functions that surround the world which, although used as the main method of navigation in the past, have been forgotten or the method of using them is simply not known. 3. The precis is divided into the following sections: a. The Sun. b. The Stars. c. The Moon. d. Plant Growth. # e. The Home-Made Compass. f. Time and Distance. 4. It is emphasised that reading this precis is insufficient and that only by regular observations whenever out of doors will accurate results be gained. TH1 SUN 5. It is well known that the sun rises in the EAST, sets in the WEST and, anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere, is due SOUTH at mid-day (local time). If one is in the Southern Hemisphere it indicates NORTH. N*B. As a general rule this is slright but if working in the tropics take note of the sun's movement between Cancer and Capricorn (Fig 1). The sun ia overhead Cancer on 22 June, overhead Capricorn 22 Dec, and overhead the Equator on 21 March and 21 September. 5 6. If there is doubt as to whether the sun is NORTH or SOUTH of you a five to ten minute study of the shadows will soon indicate which way the sun is moving. 7. NORTH and SOUTH using a watch: This is probably one of the best known methods but, except at mid-day (local time) when i t^ is correct, it should be considered a rough guide only. The following method shows how it should be used. (N.B. Fig 2A and 2BJ In the Northern Hemisphere the watch is held horizontally with the hour hand pointed at the sun. An imaginary line is drawn from the centre of the watch through the 12. True SOUTH is midway between the hour hand and the 12.. In the Southern hemisphere the imaginary line through the 12 is pointed at the sun but the mid point between the 12 and hour hand this time indicates true NORTH. FIQ 2A (Northern Hemisphere) True South "V (n \ ^ ' / FIG 2B (Southern Hemisphere True North tV ^ \ Hour Hand 8. EAST/WEST line using the shadows. Place a stick about three feet tall into the ground. The ground should be flat and clear of growth (N.B. Fig 3). Mark the tip of the shadow with a peg or atone. Wait tan minutes and mark the tip of the shadow again. The straight line joining these two points indicates the E/W line. The EAST/WEST li ne is correct no matter what lati- tude or time of day this is done. 9. The NORTH/SOUTH line using the shadows at mid-day. Place a stick about two feet tall into the ground. The area should be flat and clear of growth. Before noon the shadow should be marked by a peg or etone. Using u piece of string draw an arc around the base of the stick the sane radius as the shadow When the shadow again touches the arc (afternoon) mark with a peg. Divide the angle formed by the base of the stick and the two pegs and this indicates SOUTH in the Northern Hemisphere and NORTH in the Southern Hemisphere (see Fig 4). 6 FIG 4 i morning shadow N.B. When the shadow is shortest it will also indicate the NOHTU/SOUTH line. IQ. Because air travel is on the increase it may become useful to know your latitude. In para five the sun’s regular movements between CANCI'.H and CAPRICORN were mentioned. By knowing the date it is possible to calculate, very easily, the sun’s latitude. To calculate one’s own latitude without instruments or tables, scale drawings would have to be made in their stead (N.B. Fig 5, the sun moves its latitude 22.0123 minutes daily). FIG 5 Sun /ft / Piece of board floating in water (ensures stick is vertical) The diagram that should be put on paper (exactly to right angled triangle formed by the sides A, B and Fig 6). Using a home-made protractor measure the scale) should C and the angl angle Z. e be 7 . the ( see FIG 6 11. Fig 7 shows the angle that the survivor needs to determine his latitude. By using basic geometric knowledge this can be achieved as follows: FIG 7 Tangent to earth's surface Cancer Equator Capricorn A. The Z Z B. Angle Y C. Because Angle Y Latitude r in Fig 7 is the same as that in Fig 6. + Angle Z is 90° so we can find out angle Y. the lines P and (J going to the sun are assumed to be parrel lel = Angle X. N.B. NOinil of the sun and sun NOUTH of Equator. 90° - /. Z * sun’s overhead latitude II Latitude oT observer. iNOBTII of the sun and sun SOUTH of Equator. 90° - /. / - sun’s overhead latitude H = latitude of observer. SOUTH of the sun and sun .SOUTH of Equator. 90° - / Z ♦ sun's overhead latitude H = latitude of observer. SOUTH of the sun and sun NOHTI1 of Equator. 90° ► Z Z - sun’s overhead latitude 11 * latitude of observer. 1. To obtain longtitude it is necessary to know Greenwich Mean Tin*:. The sun moves 15° every hour. 2. ft is emphasised that the observer’s position gained by tin: method explained above (even with the utmost care) can only be tHkcn as a rough guide. THE STARS 12. Northern Hemisphere: The North Star or Polaris can be taken as sufficiently accurate for anything the Survival Navigator may need. It in fact fluctuates about 2°. It can be found by three main methods - The Plough, Cassiopea and Orion (see Fig 8). 8 13. The Southern Hemisphere: The first method of finding the SOUTH point on the horizon is to multiply the longest axis of the SOUTHERN CROSS by 4-1. This brings the observer to an imaginary point above the horizon. The SOUTH landmark is immediately below this point. In the second method of finding the imaginary point the two bright stars just to the EAST of the SOUTHERN CROSS may be used as shown in Fig 9. FIG 9 Horizon Imaginary Point South Landmark 14. Because of the way the earth is continually revolving stars seem to swing from EAST to WEST in great arcs. The way in which stars seem to move can provide a useful guide to direction. First, get two fixed points over which to watch (either the sights of a stationary rifle or two stakes driven into the ground for the purpose and their tops lined up carefully). If a star is watched in this manner for several minutes, it will be seen to rise, to move to one side or the other or to sink. 9 Three Ways of Locating the Pole Star * Plough * * a « * * t Little Bear a ,j|Pole Star I • \ \ i » \ \ \ Orion If the St a r : a. Appears to be RISING you are looking approximately HAST. b. Appears to be FALLING you are looking approximately WEST. c. Appears to be LOOPING FLATLY TOWARDS THE RIGHT you are facing approximately SOUTH. d. Appears to be LOOPING FLATLY TOWARDS THE LEFT you are facing approximately NORTH. THE MOON 15. It is well known that the MOON changes shape and ranges from being a full circle, through all portions of a circle, to nothing at all. Fig 10 shows the reason for this. When the MOON is on the same side of the world as the SUN the shaded side is facing the EARTH. When the MOON is on the opposite side, the .side illuminated by the SUN is visible from the EARTH as a complete circle. Viewed from the KAHTtl, the MOON looks like a serni -c i rc 1 e at the first and last quarters. This regular movement and appearance can |>e used as a guide by the navigator. FIG 10 C 1st Quarter Last Quarter € 16. The illuminated side is always nearest the sun therefore: a. If the moon rises before the sun sets the illuminated side will be on the WEST. b. If the moon rises some time after the sun sets the illuminated side will be on the EAST. c. If the moon rises at the same time as the sun sets it will be a full moon and the method of using this is below. 17. (See Fig 11). The very approximate NORTH /SOUTH line can be seen by joining the horns of an incomplete moon. Fig 11 shows a variety of shapes the moon may be and the way in which the horns are used. 13 18. When the moon is a full circle or a half circle it is possible to tell the direction provided local time is known. local Time - 1800 2100 2359 0300 0600 First Quarter S SW W • - Full Moon ii SE s SW W Last Quarter - E SE s N.B. The directions should be taken as a guide only. PLANT GROWTH 4 Prevailing Wind Hand pressure on pt. B (leeward) Would have to be greater than on pt. End drops away suddenly U B. Formation of sand dunes FIG 13 A. Sand tails formed behind small plants & bushes 20. In the desert or dry, dusty areas it will be found that sand dunes and sand tails (Fig 13) will give an indication of the prevailing wind. They can easily be changed by a long hard wind from another direction so check the indicated direction if possible. 21. It is emphasised that to become good at telling direction from plant growth requires continuous practise. Never should the evidence of one plant or tree be taken. It is the general impression that the navigator must look for. 22. The sun also greatly affects plant growth but, whereas the indication from wind will be moat noticeable in an exposed position and where wind direction is unlikely to be influenced by the shape of the ground (e.g. a valley), the sun's influence will be most noticeable in a sheltered spot which is not affected by local shade. Flowers tend to grow towards the sun (i.e, SOUTH in the Northern Hemisphere) and the foliage of trees will be most abundant on the sunniest side. 23. In the Northern Hemisphere, if the rings of a tree are examined (Fig 14), it will be found that the rings are closest together on the SOUTH SIDE, the sunniest side. Stretch marks in the bark are also most noticeable on the sunniest side. Moss is an unrealiable guide although it is commonly thought to grow mainly on the dampest side of a tree. FIG U North side South side THE HOME-MADE COMPA88 24. The home-made compass consists of a magnetised points - a needle, nail, pin, razor blade or similar piece of metal - and something by which to suspend the pointer. 25. The points can be magnetised by being stroked with a magnet or piece of silk. It is adviseable to 'top up' these magnetised properties every few hours. If the stroking is towards the point, the point of the needle would indicate NORTH. FIG 15 it 26. A piece of metal can be magnetised by coiling a piece of inaulated wire (copper preferably) and then attaching each end to the terminals of a battery (see Fig 16). FIG 16 N.B. The wire must be insulated from the bar to be magnetised by either paper or thin cardboard, or the wire itself could be insulated. The voltage to magnetise a needle could be as little as 2 volts. 27. It is also possible to magnetise metal by tapping it sharply with a hammer (see Fig 17). The metal bar or nail must be aligned with the earth's magnetic field, i.e. pointing magnetic NORTH/magnetic SOUTH and the raised end should be pointing magnetic SOUTH when in the Northern Hemisphere and magnetic NORTH when in the Southern Hemisphere. Unfortunately the angle X varies. In England it is 68° and varies between 62° and 80° throughout Europe. The angle X should be as accurate as possible when the bar is struck but it would probably be magnetised if as much as 10° either side. Because of this the Survival Navigator will probably be able to make his magnet by trial and error. The angle X is the angle at which the magnetic field enters the earth's surface. 16 or 28. The magnetised pointer can be suspended in water (using grass, bark, paper as a float) or it could be dangled on a piece of cotton (NOI very accurate). If time is available a home-made base and pivot could be made similar to Fig 18. FIG 18 Magnetised needle wood base TIME AND DISTANCE 29. It is vital that, not only direction is known to the Survival Navigator, but also the distance he travels. Variations of ground, weather conditions and load carried are going to affect speed of movement. The following table gives a guide but it is as well for each individual to find his own capabili- ties under the various conditions. Tarrying equipment and moving across country the following distances would probably be covered. a. NIGHT CLOUD NO M(X)N Cl .OSH COUNTRY (UK) 1000 met res b. NIGHT CLOUD NO MOON OI»KN COUNTIN' (NW KUROPK) 2000 metres c. NIGHT CLOUD FULL MOON CLOSE COUNTRY (UK) 2000 metres d. DAY MIST/NIGHT/CLEAR HILLY COUNTRY 2300 root re s CONCLUSIONS 30. This precis has attempted to introduce a variety of methods of determin- ing direction. Particular note should be made of those methods which art- accurate and those which are only guides. 31. Wherever possible the Survival Navigator should check one method off against the other and in the case of plant growth the evidence of one plant or tree should never be taken - always a selection (the more the better). 32. Practice at natural navigation is essential to becoming really good. However, even the complete beginner need never be lost provided he knows and understands the basic facts. 33. The Indians of NORTH AMERICA used all possible indications in the forest. A missionary, Pere Joseph Francois Lafitan wrote in 1724: "The savages pay great heed to their star compass in the woods and vast prairies of the continent, as well as the rivers whose courses are well known to them. But when the star or sun is not visible they have a compass in the trees of the forest. The bark is dull and dark on the N0R1H aide. If they wash to be sure they give the tree a few cuts with an axe, the tree rings are thicker on the NORTH side and thin on the SOUTH side." PART 3 IMPROVISATION AND ESCAPE KIT IMPROVISATION AND ESCAPE KIT INTRODUCTION 1. This precis may give the students some ideas on the improvising of equip- ment for use in escaping capture and surviving in the field, lnpro vi sat ion is obviously a case of personal initiative and largely dependent on time. The ideas put forward in this paper are to stimulate thought on the subject, CLOTH INQ 2. This is particularly important in cold climates and when long distances are involved. The clothing used in PW camps will invariably be of a set pattern, which would immediately identify the escapees and also is likely to be insufficient to withstand the elements in a cold climate. Below are listed some ideas: a. SkiAf* If time permits trap local animals, dry skins over fire and sew into jacket. b. Para. A very adequate set of clothing can be obtained by cutting up para silk. In cold climates several layers will be required. c. Sacking . By cutting holes in the top of a sack a jacket can very quickly be made, Hessian would also serve the same purpose. d. Footwear . This is perhaps the moat important as it suffers the moat. Old rubber tyres are useful for the bottoms and a rope used in sandal fashion would be sufficient. Layers of canvas cut from a tarpau- lin could also be used. e. F™* •» old tarpaulin or webbing from a para harness one could make a pack, pouches or a belt. UlILfl. A very good hammock or sleeping bag can be made from the panels of a para. EQUIPMENT 3. It is always surprising to find how dependant one ia on eating utensils, mess tins or any of the usual equipment. Below are listed some ideas on the improvisation: a. Needles. A comparatively easy thing to improvise e.g. nails, fine needles, old wire or possibly a piece of hard wood sharpened to a point. b * Fating utensils . It is possible to make a very adequate mess tin and mug out of old tins. Also a cooker from an old tin can and a spoon can quite easily be carved from a hard piece of wood. c « yopd cutting instrument. By using the new system a tenon saw and a drill cun be manufactured. An old kitchen knife makes quite a reason- able saw with teeth filed in it. An, axe is rather more difficult, but possible if a suitable flint can be found and lashed to a strong stake. d. Huntin g. Traps and snares are relatively easily made, but their siting is a matter of experience. Spears (prehistoric) and bows and arrows can be very successful. The thread out of para cord will make quite a reasonable fishing line. 19 FIRE LIGHTING 4. This is a much talked about subject. However even the experts are singularly unsuccessful. A notable professor has only achieved fire from natural resources twice. The following implements could be used: a. Tinder, dry rotten wood - dry rags, bracken. b. Magnifying glass. Lens of binoculars are quite good. c. Flint and steel. Hard wood rotated on soft - this is extremely difficult and takes a very long t ime. K8CAPE KIT 5. This is equipment carried on the person and ia particularly applicable to men working behind enemy lines. It must be very well hidden. Escape kit bidden in the clothing will probably be only of use to the escapee on immedi- ate capture, when he still retains his own clothing. To stand any chance of retaining kit for the PW Camp it must be hidden in the natural crevices of the body e.g. mouth etc. The items of kit can be broken down under two headings: a. Kit to help escapes. b. Kit for use in navigation etc., having once escaped. 6. Below are listed a few suggested items of escape kit: a. Compass. b. Saw knife or thin cord saw, c. Escape map. d. Matches in wax. e. Pack of cards (with map in between layers). f. Para cord, string or gut (bootlaces). g. Watch. 7. Below are listed some places where kit could be hidden other than on the naked body: a. Seams and linings of clothing. b. In the fake heel of a boot. c. Threaded through the draw cord of a jacket. d. False pockets. 0. All the items above will assist in the success of an escapee, they will depend for their remaining undiscovered on their originality and therefore, as with the improvised equipment, on the initiative of the man himself. 20 PART 4 CONTACTING AGENTS AND USE OF ESCAPE LINES CONTACTING AGENT AND USE OF ESCAPE LINES INTRODUCTION 1, While it is the responsibility of an evader to help himself, he nay obtain some assistance from the Resistance Movements. If he is not given an RV to meet an agent he will have to make contact himself. It is important that it be realised that when a man is in an escape line the lives of many other people hang on his conduct. This precis lists some of the points for the evader to bear in mind. CONTACTING AN AGENT 2. There are two waya of making contact with an agent. a. Qhance Contact . Thia will come about by you being passed on to an agent by a friend of his or by your own initiative. You may contact a lone worker or shepherd who will pass you on to an agent. The important thing to remember is that you must NOT approach the house of an indivi- dual, whose help you require, by day. Also if you contact him in the open it is vital that no one else sees you near him. b. Pre arranged RV . When contacting an agent at a pre-arranged RV the following drill should be used: (1) ifefocs Cgfl&lfil Arrive near the RV by night before contact is to be made. Spend the next day in a lie up position near the RV and keep it under scrutiny to ensure that it is not ambushed. Having decided the RV appears safe one man should move closer as the dusk falls to ensure that the enemy do not place an ambush with the dusk. The RV still appearing safe this one nan makes s wide circle of the RV and finally closes in on it in ever decreaaing circles. This will enable all likely ambush positions to be cleared before arrival at the RV. (2) On _Qon tact Having arrived at the RV and met the agent, identity should be established. The agent ia likely to ask you some detail about life in England so as to confirm your identity. Unless there is a pre-arranged password the decision as to whether to trust the agent must be made on the spot by the evader. (3) After Contact Having decided to trust the agent it is vital that the evader(a) should do exactly as he asks. Remember he knows the country, the people, the enemy locations and all other local knowledge. On NO account however should the agent be given any military information. Indeed if he persists in asking military information he should be regarded with suspicion. If at any time you decide that you cannot trust your agent, a clean break must be made at the earliest oppor- tunity after your decision. 21 RVs 3. a. RVs should normally be sited on a Road Line, River Line, coast line, tree line etc. Thia will enable an evader who perhaps has inadequate navigation equipment to hit the line well to one side of the RV and then walk up the line until he hits the RV. b. RVs should be near (a few hundred yards) but NOT on prominent points. SUMMARY 4. Finally a few tips on contacting people in occupied territory. a. Never make contact by day unlesa unavoidable. b. Remember there may be a curfew at night. c. If you contact a person by day ensure no one else sees you do it, and do not expect the person to attend to you until after dark. d. The Local Doc tor and Priest in friendly areas are useful initial contacts. e. Remember strangers always arouse suspicion and will be talked about if seen. f. Be patient and remember if caught you merely go back to prison. If an agent is caught he and his family nay be tortured and executed. K8CA1B LINKS 5. You will be passed into an escape line or 'Rat* line by an agent or by the friend of an agent. A good Rat line is a highly organised piece of machinery with financial backing and with many people running a considerable risk. These people will be doing the job for patriotic or political reasons and will expect no payment other than the explicit obedience of the evader. Indeed once you are in an Escape line you will merely become a parcel to be passed from safe house to safe house. RAT LINK DRILL 6. Once you are fortunate enough to have got into a Rat line there are several things to be considered. a. Tr us t . Here again the decision lies with the individual as to whether he will trust the Escape line. 22 b a Boredom . Many people will be using the same line and it will only be capable of handling so many per week. Therefore it is likely that there will be long delays when the evader ia confined to a barn or build- ing. Further delays may be caused by part of the line being ‘bubbled’. All this may add up to a wait of months. It is here that an individual's self discipline and will power will be tested to the limit. It is vital that the prisoner/evader goes out for exercise by day. Also there will be a considerable temptation to leave the Hat line and make your own way. This is a prixe example of 'more haste less speed* as the chances of recapture are increased one hundred fold. c. Physical Fitness . In World War II evaders covered hundreds of miles in a Rat line only to he left on the mountain side near the Spanish border as they were too unfit to complete the climb. An evader must keep fit from the start, in the PW camp when lying up and in Safe houses. It is possible to do PT in a very confined space if it is necessary. d. Emergency Exit . Immediately an Evader is lodged in a safe house he must recce and lay on an emergency exit which is quite separate to the normal exit to the building. e. Guide" * When under charge of a guide his orders must be followed implicitly. Normally you should never talk to him or appear to know him when other people are present. f. Security . On NO account should any written account or marked map be kept of your journey. If captured this could bubble the whole line to the enemy. Likewise don't ask agents any unnecessary questions. If you are recaptured ‘don’t know, can’t tell' is the safest means of resisting interrogation. OCNERAL HINTS 7. a. Beware of fellow travellers and strangers, make use of gimmicks to avoid your falling into conversation i.e. Deaf and Dumb, reading a paper, locking yourae If in the train lavatory, sleeping. b. Don't whistle or hum tunes from your parent country. c. Don’t use or display any public articles of British Manufacture. d. Study the customs of the country. If people belch loudly and wipe their mouths on the table cloth after a meal then do likewise. Watch how they leave the knife and fork on the plate etc. INTELLIGENCE AND SABOTAGE 8. It is not an evader's job to collect intelligence but provided it does not jeopardise his main aim and providing he writes nothing down he should take note of anything that may be of use when he finally arrives home. Sabotage is a skilled and unusually highly organised past time requiring careful planning and some materials. An evader does not have the equipment to carry out sabotage and even if he does do some minor sabotage he is likely to frustrate the local effort by alerting the enemy. CLOTHING 9. Providing the evader keeps some item of military uniform and does not deny he is a military person, if he is recaptured he stands a very good chance of being treated aa a PW. 23 CONCLUSIONS 10, The advice in this precis is based on common sense. The successful evader nust be determined, and of the right attitude of mind if he is to succeed and his aim must be to return home to fight again. SUCCESSFUL EVASION IS ACHIEVED BY DETERMINATION 24 PART 5 DOG EVASION DOG EVASION INTRODUCTION It is difficult to produce information regarding dog evasion without using technical jargon and masses of statistics. Psychologically such verbage helps boost the morale of the writer but does little to help the reader, and in particular, the student of evasion. These notes are therefore prepared to help the non- technical and are written accordingly: Man has used the dog for military purposes for thousands of years. The Egyptians, Huns, Romans, all resorted to the use of Guard and Tracker dogs and no doubt the evasion tactics employed then have changed very little. Henry VIII provided Spain with large attack dogs, wearing spiked collars, to fight the French. The availability of chemical aids is limited. With the current trend of interest shown by many Governments, some progress will be made in this field, but as in all research, finance, and more pressing needs must take precedence. It is also possible to produce chemical aids for the handler and his dog to overcome evasive aids. The result could be the evasive aid becoming a beacon for the dog to home on. These very general notes are therefore written for the guidance of personnel who find it necessary to evade working doga and in so doing have no chemical aids available. If you are supplied with such chemical or mechanical aids, use them as an addition to your evasion technique and not as a replacement. The dog used for Military purposes must conform to certain requirements, irrespective of its breed. These can be summed up as follows:- Phyaical Height in shoulder 22 to 26 inches Weight varying from 45 lbs to 100 lbs plus Speed in excess of 25 miles per hour Temperament Intelligent, Courageous, Faithful, Adaptable, Energetic. There are many breeds having these requirements, such as Alsation, Dobermann, Pinscher, Rottweiler, Mastiff, Boxer, Collie, Groenendael, Schnauter (Giant), Labrador etc. The breed of dog employed at a particular base may be varied to suit the climatic conditions under which it will work. Humidity and temperature being the main factors involved. , SIGHT The dog relies very little on sight during its day to day activities. It's attention is, however, drawn by movement and if it’s interest is roused, will follow up with hearing and nose. Dogs have nonochrorae vision, with a limited depth of field. There appear to be areas at certain diatances where focus varies. As in humans, vision varies from dog to dog, as does the inclination to use sight. 25 At night the dog is able to detect movement, due mainly r.u its low position looking up at the skyline. It makes more use of what light is avail able. SOUND With a range of hearing twice that of humans, the dog is attracted by noise not received by the handler. Beware of equipment rubbing together, radio equipment, burners, etc. The distance at which received is very much affected by weather, in particular wind and rain. Obey the rules of approach from down wind. Dogs used for military purposes are divided into two basic groups. Those which rely on scent carried in the air and those who rely on scent held on the ground. The very basic division is applicable mainly to training and there is no doubt that an experienced dog in either field will naturally progress from one scent source to another when the need and the interest is great enough. However, the division into these two groups is sufficient for evasion purposes. Many rules apply to both. Bear in mind that there can be great variations in requirement from types of dogs for instance - using air scent e.g. Guard, Defence and Search. The same will apply to those using ground scent. SCENT The dog’s sense of smell is many thousands greater than our own. Through it’s olfactory organa it has the ability to detect a source of scent, cither by following air current*, or tracks left on the ground. This natural ability to hunt has been controlled by man, and the search and tracker dogs have emerged. These dogs must have the physical capability of following such tracks for many miles. Human scent from a dog's point of view is a combination of smells from many sources. BODY SCENT The smell of the human body, made up of ’body odour’ produced in abundance hy the sweat glands, in particular under the arms, legs, etc. This particular odour is increased by rapid movement, nervousness tension, various types of food and uncleanliness. To this odour, we must add the following: Clothing, deodorants, toiletry, shoe leather, polish, chemical aids if u*ed on clothing, environment (Petrol, oil, timber, etc.), and many other that the human may have been in contact with. Hace and creed play « part in the individual definition of a particular scent. The amount of total body scent, produced is greatly affected by constitution, activity and mental state. It therefore follows, that in many respects you can control your flow of body scent. Keep cool, calm and more with confidence. 26 GROUND SCENT Body scent deposited by the soles of the feet, plus body scent drifting down, but mainly ground disturbance caused by the weight of the man on the ground. This contact of the foot produces scent from the following sources. Crushed vegetation, insects, deposits from shoes. The breaking of the surface allowing gas and moisture to escape. All these scents added together produce the main scent for the tracking dog. Airborne scent is soon dispersed leaving the dog with the ground scent only. An experienced tracking dog can follow this scent up to forty eight hours afterwards, in virgin, humid territory. The trained tracker dog can find the direction of the track. This is possible because of the purchase of the foot. The toe part of the impression is deeper, and remains in contact longer. After examination of several foot contacts the dog can follow the track in the correct direction. Because of the natural evaporation taking place on the surface, with variation in moisture and gas movement, the basic content of each track varies from minute to minute. This variation together with the deposited body scent makes every track different. It is this variation and the ability of the dog to compute through its olfactory system the basis of each track, that the dog can follow an individual scent, even when many other tracks are present. THE TRACKING DOG The following will give an evader aufficient detail to make a good attempt at tracker dog evaaion. Aa no two doga react in the same way to a given aet of ci rcumatancea, we can only generalise. It is for this reason that the notes are in three groups. 1. Before contact with enemy 2. Contact from a distance 3. Close contact These headings are for convenience only, and any of the acts given can be applied to each quite successfully. 1. Before any contact is made with the Enemy a. Associate oneself as much as possible with the surroundings. The rules of physical camouflage should also apply to personal scent. Keep in with the surroundings. Alien scents attrack the dog. b. Travel over ground already used by humans or animals. c. When travelling in groups split up every now and then, need be for only a short distance, but will be sufficient to dog down. d. When preparing food, take care as to direction of smoke and fumes. Handle wrapper and containers as little as possible. When burying, do not handle the ground, use metal instrument. If possible, sink in deep water. Th i s slow the 27 e. When entering or leaving L.U.P’s, do so from different directions. Make false trails round perimeter of L.U.P. f. Follow to the side of animal tracks, thereby leaving no footprints. 2, Contact from a distance Visual contact or dog locating track a* Speed and distance. Tire the dog, destroy handler’s confidence. b. If in group, arrange B.V. Split up. c. Vary surface and terrain. Where possible use metalled surfaces, cross and re-cross at intervala. d. Pass through fields which contain, or have contained, animals. e. When travelling through woods, scrub or brush, change direction frequently. Remember dog will usually be on a line. This becomes easily tangled, and will slow or stop dog for a time. f. If possible cross streams etc. Walk along streams for short distance and make false exit and entry points. Walking too far in water will slow own progress too much. g. Take any step which slow dog without further endangering self e.g. false trails, use of roads, entry into villages. 3, Close contact - Dog in position to be released and able to attack. a. Get out of sight of handler b. Change direction c. Use metalled, stone, rough surfaces d. Pass through animals e. Clear obstacles f. Shed articles of clothing food etc., any scientific aids g. Wherever possible try to part handler from dog. h. If dog catches up with patrol - silent destruction, using tactics as for guard dog. There are many factors which affect scent, and a doga scenting capabilities. These factors can best be summarised as follows:- Favourable - Moist ground conditions Vegetation, grass fern, etc. Humni di ty Forest areas Light rain, mist, fog Slow moving quarry Quarry carrying heavy burden Nervous quarry - excess perspiration A number of persons on the move Light winds Still, sturgid water, i.e. swamp 28 Unfavourable - Arrid No vegetation Metalled surfaces, sand, stone Animal scents, tracks Motor, factory, pollution Duat, etc. irritating to dogs nose Quarry continually taking evasive steps resulting in handler losing confidence in dog. Ploughed ground Gale Force winds Ice, snow, water THE GUARD DOG The larger breeds of dog are used for this purpose. The final objective being to chase and attack. It must have the courage, and physical capability to fulfil the objective. It is useful to note that various methods of training are employed throughout the world, varying from compulsion to revulsion. Irrespective of training design, the end product is basic - Attack and Detain. The guard dog is operated in two ways; with a handler on leash or roaming free in a compound. Whichever method is employed, the dog will rely primarily on its hearing and scenting ability to detect intruders. It’s sight, being less developed, will be used as an auxiliary detection, the dog being drawn to a particular area by movement. After detecting an intruder, the dog will operate on command of the handler or on situation stimulus. The handler command is normal, but the situation stimulus is where a dog is released into a compound and will attack any person entering, other than a known guard or collection vehicle. Some doga are so trained that any person ia attacked, it being necessary to collect directly into a cage within the compound. Here the basic command to attack is the physical presence of a human being. In either case the dog will retain its grip on its quarry until ordered to leave. In the case of highly aggressive dogs, strict compulsion may be necessary. It ia this courage and ability of the dog that makes it vulnerable to the intruder. Pad oneself as described below, encourage the dog to attack, biting in a place that you dictate. Present a target to the dog, thereby placing it in a position in which it can be immobilised or destroyed. Adequate protection can be had from wrapping round the arm any of the following, webbing belt, legginga, rifle sling, ponchos, wrapping from equipment, acarvea, headgear. Always have a layer of softer material inside and outside your main protection. The inner layer to take some of the pressure, the outer to give the dog something to grip on. The dog is far less dangerous if it makes firm contact on the first run in. If it falls off or is deterred, it will look for an alternative target and then begin to dictate the situation to you. Throughout its training the dog has always been allowed to succeed. It is this inbuilt confidence in its own ability that encourages the dog to overcome every obstacle. Give it the opportunity to succeed and then destroy. It is moat vulnerable when gripping target. Remember a dog deterred will bark or growl, drawing the attention of the guards. 0o To avoid initial detection, obey the following simple rules: - 1. Always approach from down wind. 2. As silently as possible. 3. Ensure you cover the last part of the journey as slowly as possible thereby cutting down excretion of body odour. 4. Keep all garments securely fastened. Where a draw cord is fitted, keep it tied. 5. If you have to stop for any reason before entering the perimeter do so outside the 200 meter mark. Within this distance dogs have detected intruders travelling against the wind as well as with the air flow. 6. Keep as low as possible, use natural hollows. The air scent will be obstructed by undergrowth or barriers. 7. Be aware of changes in scent direction caused by barriers, i.e. around buildings. 8. Approach from an area where you know other humans operate in, or approach from. The dog pays less attention to areas where it expects there to be persona or vehicles. It may be attracted, but under some circumstances, this identification will be misinterpreted by the handler. 9 . When within the perimeter fence, remember, the dog relies muinly on sound and scent. Its attention will be drawn by movement. If you are down wind and the dog is passing, keep still. Guards hove passed within 10 yards without being attracted. 10. The average guard dog will have difficulty in detecting persons up high. If they do, they have difficulty in pinpointing location. This delay will give you time to operate. DESTRUCTION The destruction of a trained dog is by no means a simple matter. The situation is made more difficult for the evader, by the necessity for silence, or at leaat a degree of quiet. It is often easier to take the dog and immobilise, by either tying to a secure fitting, or binding the front legs. Always muzzle, and if possible render it inopperable, example, breaking a leg. Actual destruction may be by any of the following: - 1. Stab through abdomen, aiming from rear to front. 2. Sticking pointed stick, spear into abdomen 3. Severe blow to skull 4. Shooting through skull, aiming above, and in centre of line drawn diagonally from ear to eye. 5. Shooting through back 6. Chop at back of neck just before shoulders 30 Whichever method is decided upon, supreme physical effort must be exerted. The dogs skeletal system is such that it is virtually armour plated. Go for the soft spots, the abdomen, or the point beneath the chin, and above the breast bone. THE SEARCH DOG This dog, trained to quarter an area, with minimum command. On location of an intruder, to give tongue, or return and collect handler and patrol , Relies mainly on locating source of air borne scent. Make sure that you keep that source aa small as possible. When in an L.U.P. observe the following:- 1. Keep as close to the ground as possible. 2. Have the majority of clothing over you, let the earth absorb the scent. 3. Breath down into the ground, or at least into low vegetation. 4. Keep still. 5. If burying items, do so underneath your lying point, all smells kept down by body and covering. 6. Restrict smoking, fires, etc. Dogs whilst searching are drawn by any alien scent. 7. This type of dog is more inclined to circle and bark, or collect handler. Depart when possible and use normal evasion techniques. 8. In all circumstances if located, and eacape not possible, catch and destroy. Remember always, that the dog, be it guard, search or tracking, is reliant on command from a handler. These commands may be by voice, whistle or hand signal. They may not be continuous, or obvious, but are always necessary. It is this reliance of the dog on the human that makes an opening for the evader. Part them, aod the dog begins to lose confidence. Change the dog's surrounding and immediately its sense of security is weakened. Always aim to: - a. Destroy the confidence of the handler in his dog. b. The confidence of the dog in the handler. c. Confidence in themselves. CONCLUSION There are many end varied opinions regarding evasion. This state of uncertainty is due mainly to the very limited amount of proven information we have of the dogs interpretation of scent, Bnd it’s ability to distinguish between scents. 31 As humans we tend to base all theories on our own standards, thus expecting the dog to live up to our requirements. The dog does not have the capability to penetrate the human mind, although there may be a transference of feeling. We, on the other hand, study the psychological qualities of the dog, and understand him. In so doing, discover his weaknesses, and his vulnerable points. can 32 PART 6 WILD FOODS WILD FOOD "Thou shalt regard Nature as thy friend, drawing thy wants from its bountiful store". SIXTH Commandment for Survivors in the NZ bush. INTRODUCTION 1. The Joint Service Directive on Combat Survival states that training should be given on the techniques of escape and evasion. If a soldier is to escape successfully he will almost certainly need food. He may not have the opportunity to obtain it, or to save it up before escape. To steal food from farms, or houses will, in many countries, be impossible and it is, in any case, risking detection and recapture. Therefore soldiers should know how to identify anything that is edible. WILD PLANTS 2. In less prosperous countries, peasant folk are able to find many things growing wild that we in the British Isles with our supermarkets, good roads and railways have long ago forgotten about. Famine, poverty and pioneering taught men in the past thst there is an abundance of food provided by nature, only we must know what to look for. Thia precis sets out some edible wild plants and other things that are common in Britain. It should be noted that thia wild food will also be found in many of the teraporate regions of the world, other than Britain. For inatance, many of them will be found in parts of Europe, N Africa, Central Asia, Eaatern Asia, New Zealand and N America. The lists should therefore be useful for Combat Survival training and exercises. It is hoped to be able to provide an illustrated handbook on this subject by the end of 1967, which will give more detail than the lists and which will provide a coloured picture. FUNGI 3. We in Britain are not a fungi eating nation. Mushrooms are eaten, but most of them have been cultivated and are as a result of poor nutritional value. On the continent and elsewhere in the world, particularly in the East, « great variety of fungi are collected and sold in markets. Abroad some are nowadays tinned, or else dried snd packaged for sale. It is often suggested that fungi have little, or no food value. This is not in fact true and to show their true value the following extract from "Britain's Wild Larder, Fungi" by Claire Lowenfeld, herself a qualified dietician is quoted : NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FUNGI Proteins , Fats and Carbohydrates. With regard to their chemical composition and their nutritional value, fungi are usually compared to vegetables, but in fact they occupy a position between meat and vegetables. They contain more protein than vegetables - though only part of the protein is digestible and they contain u little more fat, except in the case of Mushrooms which are lowest in fat. The composition of Boleti, Mushroom, Milk Caps and Chanterelles compared to various types of meat and to six of the most popular vegetables, make the proportion quite clear (see Table 1 attached). A table is quoted from a Swiss book, to demonstrate this point, as very little work seems to have been done on wild fungi in this country or in America. Food values of Mushrooms can be found in many books, but the mushroom is not really typical, as it contains less protein and carbohydrates than Boletus cdulis, and less fat than all three wild fungi mentioned in this table. 33 Calories . The quantity of calories supplied by 1kg (2.2 lb) of Boletus edulis. Milk Caps, Chanterelles and cultivated Mushrooms is very similar to that supplied by the same quantities of vegetables. Again Boleti supply more calories than the other fungi or other vegetables (see table 2 attached). The calorieB or fuel value of Boleti can be best compared to the fuel value of carrots. Minerals. The mineral value of fungi is also near to the mineral value of vegetables. Mushrooms have more phosphorus than carrots, cabbage, cauliflower, spinach; they are rather poor in calcium. This can be seen from the comparison of the mineral elements of Mushrooms with the vegetables mentioned above (see table 3). Vitamins. There is tome vitamin content in fungi, but down on vitamins in wild fungi. Traces of vitamin are found in quite sn appreciable quantity in Chanterelle. Large quantities of vitamin are found in most fungi, but only traces of Vitamin C. According to work done at the Towell Institute, Aberdeen, mushrooms contain 50 international 100 gr. Vitamin B and 1.9 mgm. Vitamin C per 100 gr. The most interesting fact, however, is that fungi contain Vitamin l), the important anti-rickets vitamin, which cannot be found in vegetables but only in fiah oils, for instance halibut or cod liver oil. Boletus edulis Chanterelles Mushrooms grown in the light Mushrooms grown in the dark Gyromitre esculents or Ilel veils crisp* contain 83 ■contain 63 * contain 21 * contain 125 ■per 100 gr ii m n ■P P P P P p p p p p p w contain 83 Int Un Vit D » "Unquote" 5. Shown' in the lists of for eating that are common other parts of the world. 6. There are many popular beliefs about ways of identifying poisonous fungi. It is agreed opinion of all authorities on this subject to-day that THERE ARE NO RELIABLE HARD AND FAST RULES TO GO BY. There is a popular belief that if an onion, some garlic, a silver spoon or a sixpence are cooked with fungi, they will change colour if poisonous fungi are present; however, when cooked with Amanita Phalloides (the most deadly of all poisonous fungi) they all remain unchanged. Therefore the beginner should: a. Learn to recognise a small number of the important edible fungi and forget and not touch any of those which are not in this small range. b. Never pick any fungus which has got white gills. c. Learn the characteristic formation of the Amanita family. Almost all fatalities from fungua eating have occurred from eating members of this family (see diagram attached). 7. To an escaper, fungi are an invaluable source of food. This the German Army discovered when on the run in East Africa during the First World War when they lived off fungi. More recently there have been examples of Gurkhas finding fungi in Borneo and Malaya of similar type to those that they edible fungi are the good, or excellent mushrooms in Britain and which are of course found in many 34 eat in Nepal. Even in Arabia fungi have provided sustenance as witnessed by Wilfred Thesiger after he had crossed the Empty Quarter: "The evening before we reached Buraina I was lying contentedly on the ground watching bin Kabina roasting some toadstools that he had found while herding the camels. There were also trufflea here which were even better". (Extract from Arabian Sands) SEAWEED 8. Escapers may find themselves along a coastline; they might in fact make for one to obtain a boat to make good their escape. They should therefore know that no seaweed is poisonous and that some found between the high tide mark and the low tide mark are edible and nutritious. It is rich in minerals and in Vitamin C. Care should be taken when collecting it that only fresh plants are selected as it spoils quickly when left exposed out of the water for any length of time. 9. Small quantities of seaweed are in fact contained in ice-cream, jelly, blancmanges, Australian tinned meats, tinned beer and some soups. Forphyra is sold as laverbread in many oarketa all over South Wales and it can even be purchased in Hereford. In Ireland, Carageheen, or "Iriah Moss" is collected and sold for consumption and in Scotland, Dulse is sold in Aberdeen and other markets again for UK consumption. In Canada Dulse is sold in place of tobacco as a "Chew" and during the Italian Campaign, some KIWIS chewed it to relieve their thirst. TREES, BARKS AND NUTS 10. Although the outer bark of trees should never be eaten owing to the large amounts of tannin present, the inner bark next to the wood of any tree may be eaten raw, or cooked. The inner bark of PINE trees is highly nutritious and contains large quantities of Vitamin C. The inner bark of BEECH trees is also nutritious, particularly in Spring when it is newly formed. 11. Apart from the common Sweet Chestnut, Haiel and Walnuts, the Acorn and the Beechnut can be used to provide nourishment for an escaper. Then again, the leaves of some trees are edible and others can be used to make tea. For detail s nee list 4. CONCLUSION 12. Plant foods have one great advantage over animal foods, namely availability. The area in which the escaper may have to survive in, may be deficient of wild life, or he may be injured, or exhausted and incapable of making the sustained efforts required to capture animal foods. There are however, very few places where an eacaper who has taken the trouble to study this facinating subject, has not benefitted. BIBLIOORAPHY 13. "Wild Foods of Britain" By Jason Hill (Faber & Faber 1939) "Wild Foods of Great Britain" By D.C.R. Cameron, 1917 "Britain's Wild Larder, Fungi" 35 By Claire Lowenfeld (Faber & Faber) Bri tain ’a Wild Larder, Nuts By Claire l.owenfeld (Faber & Faber) "Edible Wild Plants" By O.P. Medsger (Macmillan Co., New York) "The Survival Book’ Nessbitt, Pond, Allen (Van Nostraund Co., New York) TABLE 1 Chemical Composition of Fungi compared with the Chemical Composition of meat and vegetables. Water Protei n Fat Carbo Raw Ash Vit Vit Vit Hyd Fibre A B c % % % % % % % % % Reef (Medium) 72 21 5.5 0.5 0 1 • • Veal (Fat) 72 19 7.5 0.1 0 1.4 • • Pork 47.5 14.5 37.25 0 0 0.75 + • Kidneys 75.5 18.5 4.5 0.4 0 1.1 • • • • Liver 71.5 20 3.5 3.5 0 1.5 • • • •M Cod 81.5 17 0.25 0 0 1.25 • • • • Boletus edulis 87.13 5.39 0.40 5.12 1.01 0.45 • • • Mushrooms 89.70 4.88 0.20 3.57 0.82 0.82 • • • Lactarius 88.77 3.08 0.76 3.09 3.62 0.67 • • • Chanterel 1 e 91.42 2.64 0.43 3.B1 0.96 0.74 • • ♦ Carrots 86.77 1.18 0.29 9.06 1.67 1.03 • • • * ♦ • White Cabbage 92.11 1.52 0.15 4.17 1.17 0.88 • • • * * * • • • Bed Cabbage 91.61 1.67 0.15 4.78 1.05 0.72 • • • • • • ♦ ♦ Cauli flower 90.89 2.48 0.34 4.55 0.91 0.83 • • • • Spinich 93.34 2.28 0.27 1.74 0.50 1.87 * • • • • • • ♦ • Asparagus 95.34 1.64 0.11 1.74 0.63 0.54 (• - little; •• = satisfactory; ••• = much) Translated from E. Ilabersaat, Unsere Pilre, Hallwag, Bern, p.20. 36 TABLE 2 Calorific Value of Wild and Cultivated Fungi compared with other vegetables. 1 kg = 2.2 lb of: Calories Boletus edulis 343 Mushrooms 278 Milk Caps 209 Chanterel les 229 Carrots 340 Cabbage (white headed) 244 Red Cabbage 269 Cauli flower 248 Spinach 249 Translated from K. Kabersaat, Unaere Pilae, Hallwag, 1946, p. 2 1 . TABLE 3 Mineral Elements of Mushrooms compared with Mineral Elements of other vegetables (in percentage of the edible portion (Sherman)). Cal- cium Magne- sium Potaa- ium Sod- ium Phos- phorus Chlor- ine Sul- phur T ron Mushrooms .014 .016 .384 .027 .098 .021 .051 .00073 Carrots .045 .020 .308 .077 .041 .039 .022 .00062 Cabbage Headed .046 .012 .294 .027 .034 .038 .067 .00043 Caul i f ] ower . 122 .014 .222 .068 .060 .050 .006 .00094 Spi nach .078* .050 .537 .89 .046 .066 .036 .00255 •Not nutritionally available. Sherman, H.C. Chemi atry of Food and Nutrition, 5th Edn. , 1938. The Macmillan Co., New York City. 37 6 CHICKWEED STELLAR 1 A MEDIA PINK CARYOPHILLACEAE -E 4 FLOIER EDIBLE PARTS Yellow May - Aug Valuable substitute for spinach. Leaves and young shoots may be eaten raw, or boiled. Peel the shoots, remove stringly parts, cut into equal lengths, tie in bundles and boil in salt water until tender. Yellow Mar - Oct The calorific value of Dandelion leaves is twice that of cabbage. Young leaves .may be eaten raw and both the roots and leaves can be boiled. To remove the bitter taste change the water once, or twice. Blue Apr - Jul Very useful because it can be found from January onwards. The leaves can be eaten raw, or cooked like spinach. Red May - Jul A few leaves can be found in winter. Very rich in minerals. The leaves can be eaten raw; they have a sharp taste and are frequently used in salads. Good in soup. Blue Jul - Sep The young leaves should be boiled. Change the water once, or twice to remove the bitter taste. The tender roots can be boiled like carrots. Roast and ground chicory give body and flavour to coffee, but it is not very palatable alone. Very tasty. The small leaves may be boiled and mixed with other vegetables. Whi te Feb - Nov TABLE 4 (confd.) Ser NAME FAMILY FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS BUI RUSH, REEDMACE or TYPHACEAE CATS TAIL TYPHA LATI FOLIA Yellow The rind of the root and the young stem to a Jun - Jnl height of IB" is peeled off and the white tender part can then be eaten raw or boiled. The pollen from the flower spike can be used as flour. 8. BLADDER CAMPION SILENE VULGARIS PINK CARYOPHYLLACEAE Hhi te Jun - Sep The leaves may be boiled and mixed with other vegetables. • 9. BRAMBLE RUNDUS FRITTI CIS BOSE ROSACEAS Pink Jun - Aug Not only the blackberry is edible: the young tender shoots if boiled for ten minutes are very tasty. Tea can be made by pouring boiling water over a table-spoonful of fresh, or dried bramble leaves, which should then be allowed to draw for S - 10 minutes. 10. BRACKEN PETERIDIUM AQlilLINUM POLYPODY POLYPOD I ACREAE The young green shoots just as they are unfold- ing can be gathered and boiled for half an hour. They have a sticky juice and strong flavour. The roots can be roasted. 11. DOG ROSE ROSA CAMNA ROSE ROSACEAF. Pink or White Jun - Jui Natures richest store of vitamin A & C. Cut the hips in half, remove the central core of seeds and fry the remaining shell-like skin over a fire (or eat them raw). 12. JACK -BY -THE -HEDGE ALLI ARIA PETIOLATA . CABBAGE CRUOI FERAE *hite Apr - Jun The leaves and stems have a strong garlic flavour. They may be eaten raw. Most people prefer to mix them in small quantities with other leaves. Ser NAME FAMILY 13- LADY’S SMOCK OR CABBAGE CUCKOO FLOWER CRUOI FERAE CARD.AMINE PRATENSIS 14. LESSER CELADINE OR PILE WORT RANUNCULUS FICARIA 15. GREAT BURDOCK DAISY ARCTIUM LAPPA COMPOSITAE BUTTERCUP RANUNCULA CEAE 16. FIELD, OR CORN POPPY PAPAVER POPPY PAPAVERACEAE 17. FIREWEED, ROSEBAY WILLOW HERB WILLOW HERB ONAGRACEAE CH.A.MAEN ERION AUGUSTI FOLIUM 18. FLOWERING RUSH BLTOMUS BUTOMACEAE 19. GOATS BEARD DAISY TRAGOPOGON COMPOSITAE 20. GREATER STICH WORT STELLARIA PINK CARYOPHI LLACEAE EDIBLE PARTS Pink Young leaves are good rav; older ones are Apr - Jun peppery, but can be used to add flavour to stews and soups. Yellow The leaves nay be eaten raw or cooked as greens. Mar - May Pink Cultivated as a vegetable in JAPAN. Peel the Jul - Sep large tender leafstalk and flower Btalk, then eat raw or boil. The root can also be boiled. Poppy leaves are not in the least narcotic! Gather young leaves before the plant flowers. Boiled in salty water the leaves have a nutty flavour and combine well with Sorrel. The young stems and leaves can be boiled as greens and the mature stalks should be peeled and their sweetish interior eaten raw. The dried leaves of Fireweed make a good beverage. Pink The rootstalk should be peeled and boiled like Jul - Sep potatoes. It can also be roasted. Y'ellow Both the stems and roots have a sweet juice Jun - Jul and may be eaten raw. Alternatively, they can be boiled until tender. Pink Jul - Sep Red Jun - Aug White Apr - Jun The leaves and stems are edible raw, or boiled. TABLE 4 (contd.) Ser NAME FAMILY FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS 21. GREAT PLANTAIN PLAN! AGO NWJOR PLANTAIN PL ANT AG I NACFAE Green May - Sep The leaves are cooked as greens. It is often eaten in CHINA and AMERICA. 22. GOl'TWEED, or GROUND ELDER AKGOOODJ UM PARSLEY UMBELLIEERAE White May - Aug The young leaves have a delicate flavour. Treat them in the same way as Nettle leaves. So do not eat them fully developed as they are nauseous. 23. HAWTHORN, or MAY GRATAGUS MONOGYMA ROSE ROSEACEAE White or Pink May - Jun In spring the young shoots are delicious raw. Later in the year the haws are juicy meaty and pleasing to the taste. 24. IVY LEAVE L TOADFLAX CYMBALARI A SNAPDRAGON SCHROPHl'LARI ACEAE Blue May - Sep The small leaves may be boiled and mixed with other small plants. 25. HOP HUMULUS Ll'PUUJS HEMP CANNABI NACEAE Green Jul - Sep Common in hedges and open woods. The young shoots were very popular in Britain about 100 years ago and still are in countries such as Belgium. Peel, cut up and boil the shoots until tender. 26. FENNEL FOENICULUM YULGARE PARSLEY UMPELLIFF.RAK Yellow Jul - Oct The leaves can be eaten raw. The leaves also add a good flavour to soups and stews. The young roots and shoots can also be boiled. 27. COMMON HORSETAIL KQLTSETIM ARYENSE HORSETAI L EQUISETACEAE Green The outer tissue can be removed from the young shoots of the Horsetail and the sweet interior eaten raw. 28. JUNIPER J UNI PERU S COMMUNIS CIRRESSEACAE The bluish black berries, which in some cases grow to the size of a marble, are full of nourishing pulp. NAME FAMILY FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS The young fronds may be collected in early spring and then boiled or steamed. The old leaf stalks on the underground stem can be roasted. Very high calorific value. Can be eaten raw or boiled for eight minutes. White The nuts can be found 2-3 inches below the May - Jun surface. The tubers are edible raw or cooked. Select young stalks not more than 6-8 inches long. Break them off and draw them through the closed hand to remove the wool. Wash and boil for about 30 minutes. White The small fleshy leaves of this little plant May - Aug are pleasantly sharp and are valuable because they contain vitamin C. White The small leaves may be boiled and mixed with Jan - Dec Other vegetables. bellow The roots can be boiled, roasted, or eaten May - Aug raw. Yellow The leaves and the thick succulent roots can May - Oct be boiled or eaten raw. Very high calorific val up. All the year round young nettles can be found, ep They are valuable because of their high food value. Choose young ones 6-8 inches high. Chop them up and boil for six minutes. Green Jun - S TABLE 4 (contd.) Se r NAME FAMILY FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS 38. SWELT CICELY MYABHIS ODARATA PARSLEY' UURFLLIFFRAF WLite May • Jun The roots when boiled have a taste like chestnuts. The leaves may be used to add flavour in the same way as mint. 39. TANSY TANACETUM VL1GABE DAISY COMPOS I TAE Yellow Jul - Sep The leaves and flowers can be used to make a tea. One or two leaves can add flavour to an omelette, or stew. 40. TUBEROUS CARAWAY' BUNIUM Rl'LBOC.ASTAMJM PARSLEY UMBELLIFERAE White Jun - Jul The tuberous root. 41. WATER. ARUM or WILD ARACEAE White Like most members of the lily family, the plant parts are filled with acrid crystals making these parts unplatable until the bitter- ness is discipated by drying or cooking. Having cooked the starchy roots they should then be pulverised and dried into a crude flour or farina. This can then be cooked as a sort of porridge. 42. WATER CRESS NASTURTIUM OFFICINALE CABBAGE CRUCI FERAE White May - Oct The leaves and stems can be eaten raw. If the water in the area might be contaminated, then boil these greens. 43. WARER PURSLANE HEPLIS PORTULA LYTHACEAE Pink Jun - Sep A very nutritious plant. All parts are good to eat raw. The leaves taste like watercress when eaten fresh and they are very good thirst rel i evers. 44. WHITE MUSTARD SIN APIS ALBA CABBAGE CRUCI FERAE Yellow- May - Aug The young slightly peppery leaves and young flowers are good raw. The entire plant is tasty when cooked# FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS Green Jun - Sep The peeled young stems and leaf stalks, tasting and smelling like celery are good raw. The young leaves are excellent when cooked, particularly with fish. Yellow Jun - Sep White Yellow Apr - May Green Jun - Oct The root. The stem of the wild rhubarb can be eaten like cultivated rhubarb. The strong and bitter taste can be alleviated by repeated boiling in water. The leaves are bitter, but ,the young ones can be eaten raw. The bitterness can be lessened by cooking in several changes of water. Gather the young leaves in spring and cook until tender. Change the water to remove the bitter taste. Red Jun - Sep Jun - Jul Green Jul - Oct Same as the curled Dock. Long cultivated as an early green. A good pot* herb. A very common weed, found frequently in potato fields. Very tasty, cook leave for twenty minutes. Used as a pot-herb and also for pickling. Aug TABLE 4 (c ontd . ) Ser NAME FAMILY FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS 54. PERFOLI ATE CLAYTON I A MONTI A PERFOLI ATA PURSLANE PORTULACEAF. White Apr - An g The leaves and stems can be eaten raw, or cooked. 55. MARSH MARIGOLD or KING CUP CAl.THA PALUSTIRIS BUTTERCUP RANUNCULACEAE Yellow Apr - Jul The leaves and stems are boiled like spinach. Many people say that Marsh Marigold is superior in taste to spinach. The flowers are also edible. 56. PRICKLY LETTUCE LACTUCA VI ROSA DAISY COMPOSITAE Green Jul - Sep Young leaves are very tender and can be eaten raw. If cooked, they need very little boi ling. 57. REDSHANK or WILLOW WEED POLYGONUM PERSICARI A BUCKWHEAT POLYGONACEAE Pink Jun - Oct Thia is used as a good early salad plant. 58. SCARLET PIMPERNEL SHEPHERDS WEATHERGLAS S ANAGALLIS ARVENSIS PRIMROSE PRIMULACEAE Red Jun - Aug The leaves and stems can be eaten raw, or cooked. 59. SWEET FLAG ACORUS CALAMUS ARUM ARACEAE Green May - Jul The rootstock has a pungent, biting, aromatic flavour. In America it is used by confectioners as a candy. To prepare it they cut it into slices and boil, the pieces are then removed again and boiled in a thick syrup. 60. STAR OF BETHLEHEM OLNITHOGALUM UMPELLATUM LILY LILLIAC-EAE White Apr - Jul The bulb of this plant is pleasant and very nutritious when cooked. 61. SALI SFY THAGOPONGON PORRI FOLOl S DAISY COMPOSITAE Purple Jun - Aug The roots when tender can be used as food and the tops are sometimes used as greens. TABLE 4 (confd. ) Ser NAME FAMILY FLOWER EDIBLE PARTS b2. EVENING PRIMROSE C.ENOTHERA BIENNIS WILLOW HERB ONAGRACEAE Yel low Jun - Sep The roots can be eaten and are said to be wholesome and nutritious. The young leaves can be eaten ra*. 63. DWARF MALLOW MALVA NEGLECTA ROTliNDI FOLIA. MALLOW MALVACEAE White Jun - Sep The tender shoots and leaves are edible raw or cooked like spinach. 64. SEA ROCKET OAKILE MARI TIMA CRUCI FERAE Jun - Aug The fleshy root can be ground and used as flour. The leaves can be eaten raw or used as a pot-herb. 65. CLOVER TRIFOLOUM PRATENSE PEA LFGUMINOSAE Pink Jun - Sep This and other specis of Clover are eaten raw. 66. COMMON THISTLE CIRSIUM VULGARE DAISY COMPOSITAE Purple Jun - Oct The base of the thistle flower head contains a "Nut* which is at its best for eating when the flower is fully opened, although they may be eaten while the flower is still in mature. After the flower head has been removed the soft *nut* will be found in the base of the flower and it may be eaten raw. These "nuts" are nutritious and satisfying. 67. ELDER SAMBL’CUS NIGRA CAPP I FOLI ACEAE White Aug - Sep The purple berries are edible, raw or cooked. The flowers can be mixed with batter and baked into cakes. 68. REED GRASS PHRAGMITES COMMUNIS PHRAGMITES GRAMINEAE Aug - Sep When the reed is punctured it exudes a pasty substance which hardens into gum. This is very rich in sugar. Indians in America also eat the roots of the reed. TABLE 4 (confd.) Ser NAME FAMILY FLOWT-B EDIBLE PARTS 69. MOUNTAIN SORREL OXYRIA DIGYNA RHFLM IIGYNUM RUMEX POLYGONACEAE Green/Red Jul - Aug The fleshy, succulent leaves have a pleasing acid taste and can be eaten ra?, or as a pot herb. 70. HIED STRAWBKRHY FR AGAR I A VRSCA ROSE ROSACE AE White May - Jun The strawberries. FUNGI CHECK LIST 1. The following fungi are common LATIN NAM E AGARICUS AHVENSIS AGAR I Cl'S AUGUSTA AGARICUS BITOFQUIS AGARICUS CAMPESTRIS AGARICUS SILCICOLA AGARICUS SUBPERONATUS ARMILLARIA MELLAE AURICULARI A AURICULA BOLETUS BAD! US BOLETUS EDULIS BOLETUS CYANESCENS BOLETUS KI.KGANS BOLETUS KHYTHROPUS DOLUTUS LITUKS BOLETUS PULVKRUI.KNTUS BOLETUS TFSTAGEOSCARBER CANTHABEI.I.US CIRARIUS CLITOCYBE GEOTROPA CLITOCYBE GIGANTEA CLITOCYBE NFBULARIS CLITOPILUS PBUNU1.US COPRINHS COMATUS CRATERELLUS CORNUCOPIODKS FISTULiNA IIKPATICA HYDNOTHI A TULASNU I.KPIOTA KXGDIU AT A * UhCOTIHTKS " PlIOCKHA * HIIACODES LYCOPEHIJON CAKLATI M " EXCIPULIKORNE " GIGANTEUM MORCHKI.LA CONICA " ESCULENT A " VALGAHIS PIIAELOLKOIOTA AURKA PHOUOTA MUTARILIS PLEUROTLS OSTHKAT US and good, are excellent to eat: ENGLISH NAME HORSE MUSHROOM FIELD MUSHROOM WOOD MUSHROOM HONEY FUNGUS JEWS EAR CEP CHANTERELLE CHEESE CAP SHAGGY INK CAP HORN OF PLENTY BEEF STEAK FUNGUS TRUFFLES PARASOL MUSHROOMS SHAGGY TARASOL MOSAIC PUFF BALL GIANT PUFF BALL MORELLA 48 OYSTER FUNGUS LATIN NAME ENGLISH NAME RUSSULA AURATA " VIRESCENS SPARASSIS CRISPA TRICH01.0MA FLAVORVIRENS " GAMBOSUM ST GEORGE’S MUSHROOM " NUDUM WOOD BLEWITS " PORTENTOSUM " SAEVUM WOOD BLEWITS TUBER AESTIVUM TRUFFLES The following fungi are known to be poisonous: LATIN NAME ENGLISH NAME REMARKS AMANITA MUSCARIA FLY AGARIC Poisonous hut not deadly " PANTHERINA PANTHER CAP Very poisonous • PHALLOIDES DEATH CAP Deadly ■UMBRINA Poisonous ■VI ROSA DESTROYING Deadly " SPISSA Poisonous " PORPHYRIA Poi nonous BOLUTUS PACJIYPUS Poisonous CLYTOCYBE RIVU LOS ARES Poi sonous * DEALBATA Poi sonous CORPINUS ATRAMENTARIUS SMOOTH INK CAP Slightly poisonous ’ MICACEUS GLISTENING INK CAP Slightly poisonous ENTOLOMA LIVIDUM LEADEN ENTOLOMA Deadly GYROMITRA ESCULENTA LORCHEL Poisonous when raw but edible i f boil ed and water thrown away. HERBELOMA CRUSTULININFORME POISONOUS PIE w Slightly poisonous HYPHOLOMA FASCICULARE SULPHUR TUFT Poi sonous " SUBLATERITIUM Slightly poisonous INOCYBE GKOPHYLI A EARTHY INOCYBE Poisonous " ASTEROSPORA Poi sonous * NAPIPES Poi sonous ’ PATOULI LL ARDI I Deadly " MACULATA Poi sonou s " PRAETERVISA Poi sonous " FASTI GI AT A Dangerously poisonous * GPISO LILACINA Poi sonous " LACERA Po i sonous 49 LATIN NAME ENGLISH NAME REMARKS LACTAHIUS HI. ENNIS Poi sonous LACTAR1US IIKLVIJ8 Poi sonous LACTAHIUS I' Y ROC ALUS Slightly Poisonous LACTAR1 US QUIETUS n ■l ACTARIUS RUFl’S Poi sonou s LACTAHIUS 'FORM I NOSUS WOOL MILK CAP Slightly Poisonous LACTAM I US UVIlHiS Poi sonous l.ACTABl US VKLI.ERKIS Slightly Poisonous LACTAHIUS’ V I ETl'S Slightly Poisonous L ACT ARILS CILICOIDES or " PIIBKSCKNS m R m ft LACTAHIUS SIM NOSULUS n ft LACTAHIUS SCROB1 CUI.ATUS Poi sonous LACTAHIUS TH I VI ALIS « LACTAHIUS FI.EXUOL'SUS R PAXTI.LUS INVOLUTES Poisonous wh on raw PSALI.IO I A XANTHODERMA YELLOW STAINING MUSHROOM Po i ho no u h RUSSULA MADIA n Rl'SSULA EMKTICA THE SICKNER R HUSSL-LA FELl.E A BITTER RUSSULA R RUSSULA CRAG 1 1.1. IS Slightly Poisonous RUSSULA OCHBOl.EUCA Po i so no ii s RUSSULA Oi: KI.I-T II R RUSSULA SANGFINEA Slightly Poisonous HUSSULA SARI ON I A Po i sonous RAM ARIA FORMOSA * SCI .KRODERM A Al RANT 1 ACUM COMMON EAR'IH BALL R STROPIIARIA AKRL'GINOSA VERDIGRIS AGARIC Po i sonous 50 EDIBLE SEAWEED Ser LATIN NAME ENGLISH NAME COLOUR EDIBLE PARTS 1. ULYr'A LACTUCA SEA LETTLCE Green Very common. Wash it and the entire plant can be eaten. Found both sides of the Atlantic and Pacific. 2. LAMINABIA SACCF ARINA SUGAR WRACK Brown The most common edible brown seaweed. The frond or leaf can be eaten raw when young. The young stalks are sweet to the taste. Found on both sides of the Atlantic and on the coasts of China and Japan. 3. MARIA ESCULENT A EDIBLE KELP Brown It should be boiled to soften it, after which it can be mixed with vegetables or soup. It is found on both sides of the Atlantic and Pacific. 4. CHONDRUS CRISPUS IRISH MOSS Brown The entire plant can be eaten. Boil it into a mild drink; when mixed with milk it gives a blancmange. Found on both sides of the Atlantic and Pacific. 5. PORPHYRA LAVER Shiny red or Dark purple Common and has been used as food for centuries. Still marketed in S Wales. Clean and boil until tender (about six hours in winter and eight in summer). Mince and then fry. Found on both sides of the Atlantic and Paci f ic. 6. RHODYMENI A PALMATA DULSE Red Rich in protein and can be stewed to give a nutritious soup. The young fronds can be eaten raw but are tough. It is often rolled and used as a chew. It is sweet to the taste. Found on both sides of the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean 7. LAMINARIA DIGITATA CAR WE ED Red The leaf can be stewed or fried. CALENDAR OF WILD FOODS JANUARY- MARCH JULY- SEPTEMBER JUL Y- SEPTEMBER (contd.) Corn Salod Ash (August) Whortleberry (Aug-Sep) l)andel ion Barberry (Sept) Wood Sorrel Herb Bonnet Beefsteak Mushroom Yellow Goat’s Beard (Sep) Horseradi ah Bilberry (Aug-Sep) Laurel Blackberry (Sep) OCTOBER- DECEMBER Laver Blewit (Sep) Barberry (Oct) Lettus Laver Corn Salad Beech Nuts (Oct -Nov) Sauce-all-alone Crab Apple (Sep-Oct) Beefsteak Mushroom Stinging Nettle (March) Dandelion (Oct-Nov) Tansy Elder Blewit (Oct-Nov) Watercress Fairy Bing Mushroom Corn Snlad Fennel Dandelion APRIL -JUNE Field Mu ah room Elder (Oct) Corn Salmi Field Poppy Fairy Ring Mushroom (Oct) Handel i on Ground F.lder Field Mushroom (Oct) K1 dcr Hawthorne (Sep) Hawthorn (Oct) Fairy Ring Mushroom Hazel Nuts (Sep) Hazel Nuts (Oct) (May -June ) Herb Rennet Herb Rennet Fennel Horse Mushroom Horse Mushroom (Oct) Field Poppy (May- June) Horseradi ah Horseradi sh Ground Elder Juniper (Sep) Juniper (Oct) Herb Rennet Lady Smock Lady Smock (Oct) Hop (May -June) Laurel Laurel Horserudi ah Laver Laver Lady Smock Nippl ewort Lettuce Laver Laurel Paraaol Mushroom Parasol Mushroom (Oct) Nipplewort Pig Nut Bose (Oct ) Pig Nut (June) Bose (Sep) Sauce-al 1 - alone (Oct-Nov) Salad Hu r net. Rowan (Aug-Sep) Shaggy Cap Mushroom Samphi re Salad Burnet Sloe (Oct.) Sauce- a 1 1 - n 1 one Sane '--nil-alone Sweet Ceci 1 y (Oct) Shaggy Cup Mushroom Shaggy Cap Mushroom Tansy (Oct) ( May -June ) Sorrel Sow Thistle Stinging Nettle (April-May) Sweet Cecily (May-June) Tansy Wat ere ress Wood Sorrel Sloe Sorrel Sow Thistle Watercress. Strawberry (Jul-Aug) Sweet Cecily Tansy Watercress Wheat (Aug-Sep) f>2 PART 7 SNAILS SNAILS (Extract from a letter from the Proprietor of the Miners' Arms, Priddy, Nr. Wells, Somerset.) "Snails have been eaten in many countries for thousands of years, the Romans being credited with learning how to fatten them for the table. Although many varieties of snail are edible, in Europe there are only two varieties of sufficient size to be worth preparing. The larger one, Helix Poraatia - known variously as the Roman Snail, the Apple Snail, or by the French as the Large White Snail (Gros Blanc), is the one more usually served in restaurants. In France they can be obtained live in many markets, but these days they are more usually in tins or frozen. After a fairly elaborate cleaning process they are cooked in a court bouillion of vegetables and white wine and then stuffed back into their shells with a garlic butter sauce. In England tinned, and occasionally frozen, Gros Blancs are available in delica- tessen shops, but in England the eating of snails has been confined to the chi-chi restaurants, with the exception of the north-east of Somerset and Bristol, where snails have been eaten for generations, although the practice is these days not very common. Snails used to be sold in fish shops and on stalls in Bristol and Bath, much as winkles are sold at the seaside, but I know of no shops where they can be obtained to-day. The snail eaten in these parts is Helix Asperse, the Common Garden Snail. This variety is also eaten in France, where it is known as the Little Grey Snail, (Petit Gris). It is not so esteemed as Gros Blanc but I suspect that this is on account of its smaller size rather than its lack of quality. It is, in fact, much to be preferred to the Gros Blanc, for it is more succulent and better flavoured, and it is tender whilst Gros Blanc ia inclined to be rubbery. Furthermore, although its shell is a good deal smaller than Gros Blanc, the snail inside is more or less the same size. In France snails are cultivated, and although they are frequently collected from the wild and fattened or even eaten straight away, roost of them are commercially produced. In fact they are also synthesised from the lungs of sheep! In England, as fsr as I I rear and fatten for use in them other than cooked to be supplying them to one or two know, I an the only cultivator of snails, which our restaurant. We have not previously supplied eaten here, but this year we expect to start other restaurants who are interested in them. The local tradition of eating snails was simply to boil them them like winkles. Sometimes after boiling they were bottled in It is also reported, and I believe, that roadmen would roast them over the tar brazier. Our method is more elaborate. and eat vinegar, on a shovel I do not know about snails found outside Europe. I believe that there is a giant snail in Africa which is cooked and carved in slices, but whilst there may be poisonous snails elsewhere, there is only one poisonous snail in England, and it is far too small to attract anyones attention. Gros Blanc can be found in this country, but it is rare; Petit Gris is, of course, everywhe re. The only risk with snails is that they nay have eaten something which, although harmless to them, is injurious to hunans, and as it is not practic- able to eviscerate a snail before eating it, any more than to eviscerate a shrimp or whitebait, one must make sure that a snail is starved, or only allowed to feed on material that is harmless to humans before it is cooked. 55 This means quarantining the snails for four or five days before preparing them. The risk in not doing so is slight, but it is as well to eliminate it. Of course only live snails should be collected. Hibernating snails are perfectly edible, but they should be looked over to see that they appear healthy. If the closure of the shell of a hibernating snail appears to be receding the snail should be discarded. For one that is not hibernating common sense will indicate whether it is healthy. Snails sleep during the day, generally but although, even when not asleep, they do not exactly prance about, it is not difficult to tell whether a snail is active or lethargic. The latter should be allowed to sleep it off or die from natural causes. Having collected an adequate sufficiency of suitably large snails, (small ones are too much of a fiddle to bother with) and quarantined them for a few days, (during which period they can be fed on any wholesome green leaves, or bran, flour or bread soaked in water) they must then be soaked in slightly salty water. The vessel requires a lid, otherwise the snails will return to nature. Every four hours or so a little more salt should be added. This also provides an opportunity to return the more athletic members of the party from the underside of the lid to the ablutions. (The purpose of this process is to cause the snaila to purge their alimentary tracts.) After 24 to 3 6 hours the snails, most of which will now be dead should be removed from the salty water, rinsed, and plunged into rapidly boiling water. The water is brought back to the boil and boiling continues for about 3 to 4 minutes. A large vesael is necessary as a froth forms on the top and, if the vessel is nearly full, it will come over the side, thus dousing the fire. (The rapid boiling removes slime and grit from the snails. ) After boiling the snails are removed from the water, rinsed, and then simmered for about four hours. They can be simmered in plain or slightly aalty water, but it is better if vegetables, herbs, and wine or cider is added to the water. After simmering the snails are ready for stuffing with the sauce. This should be largely butter, and the cooks own taste will suggest other ingredients. The French use parsley and a ton or two of garlic; we use herbs, cream und cheese. People seem to prefer ours. After stuffing, when the butter has hardened, the snails can be stored in a refrigerator or deep frozen. To serve, the prepared snails are put, mouth upwards, on special snail plates, which have little depressions in them to steady the snails and are then put in a moderate oven for about ten minutes; they are then put under a grill for about half a minute until the butter is sizzling and are then eaten. To eat, the snails are picked up by the shell using special snail tongs or paper - the shells being hot - and the snail prized out with a little fork or spike. They are usually eaten with brown or white bread, which serves to mop up the sauce, which some people consider the point of the whole exercise. So much for snails a la gourmet. I doubt, however, whether this could realistically be regarded as a practicable survival technique. Nor, of course, would it be necessary. Snails can, I am told, be eaten raw. The teller did not go on to say whether the eater survives, but probably he would. Simple boiling or roasting, however, would certainly be satisfactory, and if there is time or opportunity to include some of the cleaning process, so much the better. 56 The nutritional value of the snail is exceptionally high, particularly in proteins and mineral salts. ( Legendari ly , however, it is an aphrodisiac. How this might affect the prospect of survival is a matter that you will, no doubt, take into account before recommending snails to escapers.)" r,7 PART 8 ANIMAL TRAPS AND SNARES ANIMAL TRAPS AND SNARES "Hardships' you c/on't know what hardships are". Motto of tha Australian Ovcrlanders INTRODUCTION Animal food will give the moat food value per pound. Anything that creeps, crawls, swims or flies is a possible source of food. The Chinese relish fat young puppies - any evader can also enjoy them if he is lucky to get his hands on the fluffy beast. If there is wild life about they will leave their signs - game trails, big or small, fresh droppings, tree scratches, burrows, nests and so on. If the signs are fresh then obviously there is game about that can be trapped. If there are no recent signs of wild life it ia a waste of time and effort to set traps. There are many elaborate types of traps which can be used to catch different types of animals and birds, both large and small. To make them is both time consuming and tiring - and often to no avail! The evader, or escaper needs traps that are simple and easy to construct. This precis aims to show j ust that . WHERE TO SET TRAPS Find the animals tracks, or "runs" which lead from its home to its feed- ing grounds or watering places. Along these runs are the best places to set traps because the animal will come in only one of the two directions. This type of place is far more aucceasful than a trap which is set in the open with bait to attract an animal. Avoid setting a trap close to an animals home, or very close to a water hole, because at these points the animal will tend to be very alert. Any- thing suspicious will make the animal stay at home for days, or avoid it. At last light, or first light animals are on the move. Therefore it is at these times that traps are normally most successful. HOI TO HAKE A GOOD TRAP A knile and wire, string or cord are invariably essential. The trap must bn Mrou.;, securely fixed and the pull up sapling needs to be springy so as to lift the snared animal or bird clear of the ground and so out of reach of other animals. For types of traps recommended see sketches attached. When setting traps avoid disturbing the natural setting of the surround- ings, grass, shrub and soil etc. Remember to camouflage all cuts made in wood and saplings used and use materials which blend with the natural surroundings . 59 Spear Trap 63 / r Floating Duck Trap 87 Figure Four 93 « 3 ft > Baited Hole Noose 97 Animal Leg Trap Bamboo Guide 109 PART 9 SKINNING SKINNING 1. Hang the animal upside down, belly towards you, and allow to bleed in the normal way, 2. It is easier to skin an animal immediately after killing. If you are doing this it will be less messy if you skin it first and remove the entrails after you have skinned it. 3. Slit the skin from neck to belly, cut a circle round the crutch and rail and cut up the inside of the leg to the knee joint. Cut round the legs at the joint. 4. Beginning at the rear legs, which are uppermost, peel the skin away until you reach the back of the animal, removing downwards towards the head. Detach the skin by cutting round the neck. 5. Rough Curing Wash the skin if possible to remove blood and fleas and scrape the inner side using sand or earth and a stone. 115 6. Using cord .• tretch the sk n tightly on a frame and leave out in the sun, inside uppermost, for at least one day. The longer you can leave it in the sun the better. 7. To soften and to make the akin pliable, remove the frame, lay it over a fallen tree trunk, smooth stone, or on the ground and beat it thoroughly with a branch, 0. The umount of smell from the hide will depend upon how well you have scraped it in the first place, and how long you were able to leave it on the stretcher in the sun. USE OF SKIN 9. A fur will provide first class insulation between your body and the ground and if you lay it hair side up snow will not stick to the skin. 10. It is not proposed in this precis to deal with the manufacture of improvised clothing and equipment. This is best practiced using hessian. 11. If it is snowing or raining fur is best worn on the outside, otherwise wear the fur nearest the body. 116 PART 10 FISHING FISHING INTRODUCTION Fish are a very nutritious fora of food and the effort required to catch them is well worthwhile. The following notes have been written as a guide to fishing and catching fish. WHERE TO LOOK FOR FISH All types of fish are attracted to shaded parts of streams, deep pools and backwaters. They also like to get under submerged rocks and logs, under banks and beneath low bridges. If a stream, or river is in flood, choose a backwater where a small tributary enters the main stream. If the weather is hot and the water low, fish the deep pools and shaded parts of the stream. In cool spring weather, choose the shallow parts of the stream that are warmed by the sun. CATCHING FISH There are several methods in which fish can be caught depending on the country and the type of fish desired. Fish differ from each other in their diets and habits just as animals do. Some fish, such as Trout will kill and eat a small Trout; these cannibal Trout can be caught with a spinner, minnow or live bait. Catfish or Carp live and feed on the mud at the bottom of slow, muddy rivers and ponds. Catfish can be caught on a hook baited with a small piece of another fish, Eels are also a bottom feeding fish and can be fished for on the bottom. They are attracted by rotten meat. Pike are the scavengers of the water. They will kill and eat anything from small fish and frogs to a young duck. BAIT If using a hook, try to find out what the fish in the area are feeding on. This will depend on the time of the year, the state of the river and of course type of fish. Some of the usually successful baits are insects, worms, meat shell fish, woodgrubs, minnows, wasp maggots, pigs liver, eggs and scraps of flesh. If not successful with one bait, keep changing them until a fish is caught. Then cut the fish open and try to identify what food it has been eating. Having found out use that particular type of food as bait. Live bait can be used to attract fish; insects small fish are good in this respect, but small worms tend to die too quickly after being put on the hook. When using live bait, try catching a grasshopper, or beetle and then tossing it on to the surface of the water. When it lands on the water it will start kicking and attracting good fiah. If it is taken by a fish, catch another grasshopper. Carefully place a small hook in the joint at the back of its neck, making sure not to kill the grasshopper then without any weights 117 on the line, toss the grasshopper as far out onto the water as possible and walk downstream with the line until the fish takes the bait. Another way of live bait fishing is to catch a small fish about one to two inches long. Place your hook into the meaty part of the back, or tail without killing it. Then, with the aid of a float of some kind, to keep the live bait off the bottom, toe the line into the pond, pool or river. The float will give warning when the bait is taken, but remember not to strike as soon as the float goes under because in most cases the big fish will grab the small one by the tail and will then have to have time to turn it round and swallow the bait head first. HOOKS Do remember that when making, or buying will catch large fish as well as small fish, catch large fish. fishing hooks that small hooks But large hooks will only SPEARING FISH This is u good method of catching fish, night, using a torch, or light of some sort, they are then easy to spear. One of the best ways is at The light attracts the fish and A variation of this method is to lay a flat piece of shining metal or a mirror, on the bed of the river on a moonlight night. This will glint, like a light, and attract the fish. As they come to the mirror and pass over the top of it they are easy targets to spear. A good method of spearing fish in daylight is to find u rocky portion of a river. Then get another person to slowly lift rocks from the downstream end. As the water clears any fish that are there can be seen and speared. These need to be made very strong. They should not bend. The point of the spear must be very sharp: a blunt spear will merely be reflected off the scales of a big fish. The three pronged spear is best. Do not throw the spear, a thrust is more effective. Try to get on top of the fish and if in shallow water, pin it down to the river bed. In this way barbs will not be necessary. There are two ways of snaring fish, one is to have a noose made from a single strand of thin wire which is then attached to a Jong pole. Fish, such as Pike, lie alongside weeds. Bring the noose from the back over its tail and move it slowly up to behind its gills. Then, with a quick snatch, lift the fish onto the bank. The second way of snaring fish is to use a hollow pole, such as a bamboo. Pass the length of this wire through the centre of the tube. Attach the wire to the pole at the Lop end, leaving enough wire at the top end to make a loop or noose. At the other end of the pole, make a hand grip on the wire from a 118 small piece of wood. This type of snare is useful, because with it, any size of fish can be caught. EEL TRAPS Eels make very good eating and are not very hard to catch. They are found in most parts of the world, in the sea as well as in rivers, ponds, lakes and canals. They have been known to cross land to get from a river to a pond to breed and in such cases can be easily hit with a stick and picked up . Eels do not bite. They are however covered in a slippery slime, which makes them almost impossible to pick up and lift out of the water. When fishing for eels with hook and line do not strike when first the Eel is felt taking the bait; wait for the bait to be swallowed. NIGHT LINES This is a very simple method of catching fish and eels which is frequently used by Freshwater fishermen. It is moat successful and requires the minimum of effort. The line need not be checked and can be left for a number of days. A Night Line is simple to make from a survival kit. The only point to note is that the hooks must be baited with a strong bait, such as a small fish, or a piece of meat that can be tied on the hooks. Bait, such as worms, would be sneaked off the hooks by Eels, without catching them. BOX TRAPS This is another good way of catching Eels. The box should have a few small holes in the sides near the top and the box should be baited with a lump of smelly meat. The weighted box can be left in the water for up to a week without being checked. TICKLING TROUT Trout are the only fish that can be tickled with success and it is one of the beat ways of catching them. They are a very nervous and alert fish and will only be found in clear running water. As a result they hide in the following places: a. Under the banks of rivers and streams. b. In rat holes in the banks of streams and rivers. c. Under rocks. d. In the foundations of stone bridges. These are the places where Trout can be found and tickled. It is impossible to get near a Trout lying in open water, let alone tickle it there. When approaching the bank of a river or stream that looks a likely spot, there is no need for caution. Lie on the bank, start at the dowstreara end of the eddy and with hands together slowly move them along under the bank. By starting on the dowstream end, the fish's tail should be felt first. Stroke it gently a few times, then still stroking it gently, work towards its gills. When the gills are reached, grasp the fish quickly and toss it onto the bank. 119 In rat holes it is possible to find two, or three Trout all in one hole. In such a case, do not bother tickling them, as they cannot escape. There- fore kill them by squeezing their gills, before removing the hand from the rat hole . When first learning to tickl e trout people tend to be nervous. When they first touch a fish, they jump and startle the fish which is then scared off. There is no need for this nervousness, there is nothing harmful in British water. To tickle trout with success a little determination is needed. Once this is realised trout tickling is quite a simple and profitable art. 120 121 PART 11 WATER SURVIVAL STILL WATER - SURVIVAL STILL (This is an extract from " Outdoor Life " - <4u«usr 1965) Several days without water would finish off even th e ha rdi es t ou tdoor man, but the ground under him - even in deserts - usually contains more water than he needs to stay alive. The problem has been to extract the water from the ground and make it available for drinking. Now, two scientists have found a way to milk water from the desert with materials which is simple to erect and costs less than a pound. Their "survival still" consists of a six-foot square sheet of clear plastic and a children’s plastic bucket to collect the water. A long plastic tube through which to drink the water is optional. This remarkable survival gear was developed by two research physicists, Dr. Ray D. Jackson and I)r. Cornelius II. M. Van Ravel of the United States Water Conservation Laboratory near Temp, Arirona. Dr. Jackson became interested in the survival idea while conducting field tests on a conventional solar still. If the heat of the sun could evaporate salty or brackish water and make it drinkable, could it not do the same for water that Jackson knew was in the ground? His first collector was like a box with a sloping plastic cover, but Dr. Van Ravel thought of an even simpler idea. "Why not", he said "just scoop a hole in the ground, cover it with plastic and put a rock in the centre in the form of a cone?*. Since then, the two men have set up a number of stills which have pro- duced water in useful quantities. Some locations yield more water than others. A site above underlying rock, for instance, may soon run out of moisture. A natural depression or a dry riverbed are best. But even the most unlikely location - unless it's a paved parking lot - will produce some water. The lowest yield the stills have produced is a little less than a pint a day. A still in good soil has produced about a quart a day for more than a month. There is a gradual decrease in output, but when one spot peters out, the still can be moved to a new site. The solar still is operated by the sun’s heat raising the temperature of the air and soil under the plastic, thus hastening vaporisation of the water in the soil. When the air under the plastic becomes saturated - able to hold no more water vapour - the vapour condenses in tiny drops on the under- surface of the plastic - the plastic being cooler than the damp air under it. The drops run slowly down the sloping underside of the plastic and drip off into the bucket. This on a small scale, is what happens in nature when sat- urated air is cooled at high altitude and condenses into raindrops. Because solar energy provides the heat for the still, it darkness would halt production. After sundown, however, the rapidly, while the temperature of the soil remains high. So continues to condense on the undersurface of the plastic. might seem that plastic cools water vapour After developing their own technique, Jackson and van Bavel similar work in Japan. 1 earned of An Engineer named Kobayashi set up a box-like collector made of metal and glass in Tokyo and collected about a quart of water a day per square yard of surface. On the volcanic island of Oshima, he scraped away a few inches of surface ash and set up his collectors. They produced as much water there as 127 iney had in Tokyo. Eventually Kobayashi went to the Quetta Desert in Pakistan. The glass top of his collector got so hot he couldn’t touch it, and no water was produced during the day. But at night, the collector pro- duced almost a pint. The basic material for setting up your own survival still are a 6ft x 6ft sheet of clear plastic, a bucket (two to four-quart capacity), and about 5ft of flexible plastic tubing. You can do it without the plastic tubing, but it allows you to drink water without removing the bucket from the hole. The survival stills in the accompanying photographs use Tedlar plastic and 'adherable' material made by du Pont and marketed as No. 100 BG-20. Because the plastic is slightly roughened, drops of water cling to it belter than they do to ordinary plastic. Thus water sticks to the plastic right down to the bottom and drops into the bucket, not onto the ground. It is possible to roughen the surface of other plastics with very fine sand paper and lots of care. In a pinch, any clear plastic will work to some extent. Any container might be substituted for the bucket, although the wider the mouth, the more water it will catch. The hole for the still should be dug in an uhahaded spot. It should be round and about three feet across. Maintain this diameter for a few inches down, and then slope the hole inwards, as shown in the diagram. The hole should be deep enough so that the point of the plastic cone is about 18 inches below ground and clear of the top of the bucket. Put the bucket at the bottom of the hole with the drinking tube taped inside it. Bun the other end of the tube free, lay the plastic sheet over the hole and pile enough dirt around the edge to hold it securely. Use a fist-size rock to weigh down the centre of the plastic, about two inches above the top of the bucket. Ideally, there should be two or three inches of air space between the plastic cone and the earth, but this distance is not critical. Just make sure the plastic does not touch the earth anywhere and thus waste water. Don’t let the plastic touch the bucket, either, or the water might run down the outside of the bucket. Vapour should soon cloud the underside of the plastic, and drops should begin to trickle down towards the bucket. Don’t expect to begin drinking water immediately. Be patient, and you'll be rewarded. The least you should have in 24 hours is a pint. Chances are good there'll be a quart or more. Dr. Jackson points out, however, that a single survival still may not provide enough water to keep one man alive indefinitely. But two stills should be enough. The water collected is distilled and may taste flat, but the distillation makes it safe to drink. In case of rain, the survival still acts as a catch basin and holds the water. Dr. Jackson reports another possible bonus: food, the water bucket under the plastic attracts snakes and small animals, which crawl down the top surface of the plastic and then can’t climb back out. So for anybody hungry enough not to be squeamish, the solar still may also provide a meal. 128 PART 12 FIRES INTRODUCTION 1. The importance of fire in Survival cannot be over-emphasised. You need fire for warmth, dry clothing and cooking. TINDER. KINDLING AND FUEL 2. a. Tinder is the sort of material that will ignite with a minimum of heat, i.e. spark etc. Some examples are: Cedar Bark Birch Bark Fine wood shavings Dry straw Sawdus t Charred cloth, and there are many more. b. Ki ndi in« is larger fuel that will bring the burning point up to the necessary temperature for using larger fuel. Some examples are: Small twigs Split wood Heavy cardboard. c. Fue 1 is the final stage and could be any large form of combustable material . FIRE LIGHTING EQUIPMENT 3. There are many ways to light a fire, however, by far the most reliable is to use the naked flame. a. Matches should be conserved and kept dry at all times. They can be kept dry by wrapping them in polythene, keeping them in a watertight container (such as a 35mm Kodak, or Ilford tin) or by covering them with a protective layer of candle wax. b. Burning Glass - The use of a magnifying glass, binocular lens, watch glass, or an ordinary bottle can direct the heat from the sun to the tinder and set it alight. This method depends on there being sufficient sunlight. c. Bow and drill method - This is more time consuming but is effective. d. Flint and Steel or Two Flintstones - If either of these two are rubbed vigorously together they can set a spark to tinder. FIRE LIGHTING TECHNIQUES 4. a. By one of the above methods set alight a small quantity of tinder. b. Transfer this tinder, or build on top of it a pyramid of kindling. Increasing the size of the kindling as it catches fire. c. Finally add larger fuel as necessary. 131 d. Huiid a reflector to reflect heat where you want it and also protect the fire from the wind. This reflector can be of green logs, large stones etc. N.B. DON'T smother fire by crushing kindling down with heavier fuel too early. TYPES OP FIRES 5. a. Log or Stone P latform Fire If the fire must be built on snow, ice, or wet ground, build a solid platform of logs or stones and light the fire on top of this: Diagram I - LOG PLATFORM ramid Fire This type is used for drying out wood: Diagram 3 132 c. I mprovised Oven To be made from old tins or flat slabs of rock etc: USEFUL HINTS 6. a. Fire must not be used in a careless manner. In a hostile urea a fire or smoke from it may give your position away. A fire at night can be seen from a great distance and one in a parachute shelter shines like a beacon. b. Use dry wood as a smokeless fuel whenever possible; unless a food smoking fire (para 5d) is required. c. Don’t waste matches by trying to light a poorly prepared fire. Use embers for lighting cigarettes or candles, not valuable mutches. Use a shaved stick as a taper where possible. d. Carry some dry tinder with you in a waterproof container. e. Collect kindling, tinder and other useful materials on your route; you may need them later. f. To keep a fire in overnight, if it is not required, cover the deeply glowing embers with ashes and dry earth. The embers will still he smouldering in the morning. g. Hemember that several small fires in a line beside you, or in a circle around you, give more heat than one big one. h. Build up a good supply of tinder and kindling fuel before yoo try and light a fire. It is disheartening to have spent ten or fifteen minutes lighting the tinder only to find out that within m i nutes you have run out of fuel. A good supply of tinder roust be available as a con- siderable amount of time is required by you to personally nurse the fire in the early stages. j. When you are wet, cold and miserable, one hour spent building a shelter and a fire is worth many hours sleep. 133 Trench Fire cooking , roasting & baking PART 13 SHELTER SHELTERS "7/iou shalt protect thy health and strength in order that a ripe old age shalt be yours " FIFTH Commandment for Survivors in NZ Bush. INTRODUCTION Initially an escaper will probably have to slide himself backwards into a hedge and lie up in some such cover by day. But if he has a long journey to do to get back to friendly territory the time will come when he is able without abandoning caution to make himself some form of shelter. It should be remembered that sleep and adequate rest are essential requirements when under survival conditions especially when the food intake is low. Therefore, the more care that is put into preparing a shelter the greater will be its value. With the exception of snow shelters there is no set type of shelter for specific areas of the world. The materials from which they are constructed will vary depending upon geographical location. Whereas in jungle it is quite easy to build an entire shelter using natural resources, it is a very different matter when you are on a bare mountainside. There is however a definite art in shelter building and this precis summarises the different styles of shelters. Speed of building with economy of effort can only come through practice. The need for a shelter at all is dictated by climatic conditions. A shelter will keep out cold, keep off rain, or keep off sun, all of which may weaken the body and of course in extremes prove fatal. Anything which detracts from the efficient working of the body will obviously lessen the chances of survival, MATERIALS Nutural resources will vary and can be used according to availability, but the following items of equipment will save time and trouble: Poncho/Groundshec t /PI as tic - to make a roof. String/Cord Knife, or some cutting instrument. CONCEALMENTS From the point of view of the evader, not only should shelters in exposed places be camouflaged, but all signs should be obliterated before leaving. Care must be taken in collecting materials for a shelter, so that fresh cuts can be hidden, and before moving on the shelter must be dismantled and concealed, together with any refuse. TYPES OF SHELTERS Rocks To protect against areas, including desert, sun, wind, and low night above the tree line. temperatures in mountainous 137 Sangar Poncho roof to give shade during day, poncho to be used as blanket at night if not raining. Turf Only used in areas devoid of any other form of shelter. Steppes, plains, low grass-covered mountains such as Brecon Beacons. In its simplest form - a single wall windbreak: Bed Trees and Bushes These shelters in varying styles can be built in both Temperate woods and Tropical jungles. In jungle it may be necessary to build a platform to keep off the ground: a. Lean-to This is the simplest shelter and can be refined by the addition of walls, heat reflector, and floor, if time allows: b. Leaf-Basha Leafy boughs are bent over and tied to stakes. This frame thickened up with other cut branches. Lay poles over a log to form a lean-to. Then thatch with leafy plant material as thickly as possible, or use ferns, or bark. Remember und push the tree over so that its top is on the ground and the stem is still fastened to the butt. Cut away the boughs on the inside to use us thatching and break any upstanding branches on the outside so that they hang down. Thatch the shelter with the boughs cut from the inside and also with material gathered from other trees. Trunk partially inner branches removed 139 j . Poncho Can be used on their own to make shelters, or in conjunction with 141 snow .§>•: wmm m mm mm. • • i I* 1* • v« ills m mm- m mvim mr PART 14 PRIMITIVE MEDICINE PRIMITIVE MEDICINE PART I A. OBJECTIVE : To provide the shortest possible course on Primitive medicine in s Survival Situation. PART 11 wllllC A. I and first doctor, UCTION : This article is based upon Dr. Lan’s personal experience hand observations in Korea. Major Gene M. Lam, United States Army is very often quoted in USAF Survival Training School lectures. You nay not remember the greater portion of this article half an hour after you read it, but, if you are on the ground behind enemy lines or even in a desolate area of friendly territory, some of this will come back to you. If it helps save the life of even one man, then this article will have been well worth the effort on our part to reproduce it for dissemination to the aircrews assigned to this wing. PRIMITIVE MEDICINE By Dr. Gene N. Lam •You must learn basic first aid - what to do for fractures, cuts, burns etc. If you go down, you are supposed to have all kinds of things with you • a survival kit, a first aid kit, and printed instructions about using them. Let’s assume, however, that you land with only the clothes on your back - it happened just that way to lots of men in Korea. You then must know how to get along with what you have; to make do. God gave you two important things • your head and your hands. If you think and intelligently use what you have, you can take care of yourself. Thut’s why I believe everyone should be taught to survive under the worst possible circumstances. Then if he is in a less strenuous situation he can get along well; if he has aids for survival, they're so much gravy. I). SURVIVAL FIRST All) : When you learn first aid and study survival medicine, you must assume that there will be no one but you to practice it. In survival and evasion there probably will not be anyone else except perhaps men from your own crew. All aix doctors captured with me were put in one PW comp, but few USAF doctors are apt to be captured and you may be in a camp of only Air Force prisoners. You may not have a trained medical corpaman - you should not expect to have one. When most of these observations were made, there were five doctors in the camp with me. Thanks to all of them - including the three who later died - I can tell you these things, not as my own isolated findings, but as our group opinions. Immunisation helps, don’t avoid shots. You can save your life by keep- ing your immunization record up-to-date. No man died in Korea of any disease for which the armed services give immunisation shots. C. NOT ADVANCED .SCIENCE - BASIC PRINCIPLES: All of us - patients and doctors alike - depend to-day upon the wonder drugs, fine laboratories, modern medicsl equipment. We have too easily lost sight of the ’country doctor* type of mrdicine. of the things men always hsve that can save them - determin- ation, common sons*:, and n few primitive techniques. Some of these remedies were practiced by the- Greeks, Romans and Arabs long before the birth of Christ . They are still good to-day when no other means are available. It's amazing, but man can and does live without penicillin for every ache or pain. D. HKGARDLhSS OF WHAT IT IS - EAT IT: One basic principle of survival medicine is to eat. After you have been down a few hours, you get hungry. If you can, find something edible and eat it. If you are captured, someone soon will bring in a bucket of slop and, after your stomach has flipped from the sight and smell of it, you say, "I can't (or won’t) eat that stuff." You’d better eat it because that’s all you'll get and it may get pro- gressively fouler and skimpier. Here ‘will’ comes in. Say to yourself, "I’ll eat everything they give me and the nourishment will help me to get through." You must eat everything you can get - issued rations, things you can steal, things you procure from the environment. We ate dogs, cats, rats, weeds, maggots. For a while we got only ground field corn, boiled for half hour. It is tasteless but it will keep you alive. In fact, we were living it up when we got that corn mash. Most PWs in Korea ute dog but it was hard to do. Dogs are a delicacy in that area and we weren’t issued luxury items, but once in a while a stray could be ahanghaid. The town we were in had a stray cat. Puaay didn't wander long. It was quite delicious, rather like squirrel. It helps not to be able to identify a strange dish the first time its served but after the first time, the ingredients don’t really bother. It was difficult to down rats but they were edible. I strongly recommend cooking them because raw they can carry several diseases. Snakes, of course, are eaten the world over and some varieties are delicious. Just chop of the head, skin the rest, cook, then eat what’s left. Even poisonous varieties are edible. Maggots are something elae. Once we were issued rotten fish loaded with maggots. Our English cook protested and wanted to scrape them off. Afraid that some of the fish would be lost, I insisted that he cook fish, maggots and a L I , We ate the results, which were really quite good. In May 1051, every PW in camp was swollen like a balloon from severe beriberi. Since spring weeds were beginning to appear, we figured we could boil them as a cure but there wasn't a weed in camp. However, some of us were taken almost daily to a river for wood and other supplies. The criterion for success soon became not how much wood but how many weeds we could bring back. We didn't know what kinds of weeds they were, but we picked them, boiled them and ate them. Our beriberi disappeared. You will be revolted by food given you as a PW, but if you miss one meal as a prisoner it will take you weeks to regain your lost strength. You can’t afford to miss a single bite when you are on a bare subsistence diet. If you’re going to live, eat. If you plan to escape, you must have the strength to do it. E. Y 0011 IU>n;HI\ . Tj.qfcT YO U fl. _ QW N fK fl: Your two feet are the other half of the round-trip ticket. The importance of caring for your feet cannot be over-emphasised. Men walked barefoot for miles over snow and ice when the Korean weather was 45 to 50 degrees below zero. Those who took proper pre- cautions got neither trench foot or frozen feet. The precautions are simple. If you have shoes and socks, periodically take them off and rub your feet for five to ten minutes. You won’t get frost- bite. 144 If you have two pair* of socks, put one pair next to your skin to keep it dry. Change to the dry pair at least once a day. When you bed down at night, take your shoes off. Any nan who gets frostbite is guilty of neglect amounting to misconduct. In order to land safely after bailout, to walk and protect your feet, you must have proper boots. Those men who landed in North Korea with lowcuta will back me up on this. Incidentally, if you remove the steal arch support that is in most boots, and sharpen it on a rock, you will have an excellent surgical knife. F. DYSENTERY : Dysentery becomes a problem in enemy territory to most men - be they evaders or prisoners of war. The risk of dysentery can be greatly lessoned if you have and properly use halazone tablets or iodene, or if you boil water. But there will be times when you cannot possibly take such pre- cautions. Also, men have gotten dysentery from nothing more than just being scared . What is dysentery? In our camp we set up an arbitrary standard: 25 stools per day. Eight to ten was normal and 15 was merely simple diarrhea. What can you do about dysentery? You will lose water which you must replace. If possible, replace it with boiled water, but at any cost drink quantities of liquids. You also must eat, even if that means choking down food. Charcoal can help. Take any partially burned piece of wood, scrape off the charred portions and swallow them. How much? Oh, about a handful. Bones - any kind of bones - can help. They are best if burned and ground into ash, but you can grind bones between rocks to a powder, just swallow the powder. The Communists, anxious to 'educate* every prisoner of war, usually have lots of chalk around for writing on the 'wonders’ of Bolshevism. Steal some ordinary school room chalk, powder it and swallow it. It, too, will help cure dysentery. Puli bark from trees, preferably oak trees, but any kind will do. Boil it from twelve hours to three days. As the water evaporates, add more. The resulting brew will be so black, so vile tasting and so evil smelling, that it will choke you. But boiled bark contains tannic acid and that will help to cure your dysentery. It also can help further the healing of burns. Boiled bark is so terrible to choke down that we were never really sure whether people willed their dysentery to quit rather than swallow the medicine. We joked that the cure was worse than the disease - but it was a cure. (I remembered this remedy because my grandfather had used tree bark to cure deer hides and I figured that something with enough tannic acid to cure hides probably contained enough to cure dysentery. ) Tea is another dysentery cure because it, too, contains tannin. Men who'd had chronic dysentery for two or three years were cured when we got enough tea. Strong tea solutions which contain tannic acid in concentration, have also been used for centuries for burns. G- HEPATITIS : In the summer of 1951, when the Communists talked mildly about bacteriological warfare, we laughed it off as impossible. W e still joked about it when they innoculated us against this ridiculous ‘threat*. There was a bottle of Soviet-made serum, one syringe and one dull needle for 110 PWs. The first man in line had hepatitis. Within a week 35 others had it. 145 Hepatitis, or yellow jaundice, is a liver disease. When you have it, you don't want to eat but you must. We force-fed men to keep them alive - pushing rice or anything else available down their protesting throats. We also tried to keep them off duty as much as possible for about six weeks after the jaundice had subsided. The loss of appetite from this disease is terrible. 1 know because I had hepatitis twice. The other doctors kept me alive by force-feeding me. At the time it was rugged and I hated them for it - but to-day, needless to say, I am grateful. H. LICK : As a prisoner of war you will get to know many representatives of the animal kingdom, among them, the louse. This six-legged insect can kill you. There are some 5o,000 cc's of blood in the body of a normal man of average site. A single louse sucks one cc of blood a day. A louse covered man soon dies. In Korea no PW died of any louse-borne disease. I credit this to immunization. Do keep your shots up-to-date. However, lice can bleed you to death unless you pick them off avry aingl a day. Never fail to do this even though you are cold, tired and sick, whether you are a PW or an evader. One PW complained of being weak and tired. In our makeshift hospital, next to the equally makeshift morgue, I unbuttoned his jacket and shirt and pulled up his undershirt. He was a mass of moving grey bodies. Lice were so thick that I could not see his skin. That roan was literally being bled to death. You must pick lice off frequently, for they breed faster than rabbits. Regardless of how cold it is, you must inspect your entire body and every seam of every garment at least once a day, picking off every single louse. Louse hunting does more than just keep the bug from killing you. It not only pro- vides diversion and entertainment of a sort, it also keeps you busy. Purposeful occupation is important beyond measure if you are an evader or a PW. J. WORMS : You will get worms - all kinds, round, hook and tape worms. They will come from the food you eat and the dirt and filth where you live. Some will look exactly like angle worms five times enlarged. Although there are other symptoms, positive proof that you are infested is when a worm crawls out of your nose. That undoubtedly will shake you up a bit. It always does. Personal hygiene is the best preventive measure against parasitic infest- ations. You may not be really clean from the day you do down until you get out, but there are things you must try to do. Wash your body and clothes as often and as well as you can. And above all, pick lice off at least daily. Depending upon supplies, there is a worm remedy: Swallow a couple of tablespoons of kerosene or gasoline. Kerosene is more effective but gasoline will do. Either will make you a bit sick, but will make the worms a lot s icker . K. PNEUMQN 1 A : You will encounter diseases and your resistance to them will be low. Pneumonia is probably the most common, especially in winter and it makes you extremely sick. You will have no penicillin, no terramycin, not even old fashioned sulfa. (In Korea I had 250 sulfanilamide tablets for more than 2 , 000 men. ) When a man has pneumonia in primitive circumstances, there is only one thing you can do for him, even though it is not in any medical hook - keep him on his feet. You should not keep a sick man on his feel 24 hours a day, but don’t let him lie in a corner, pull something over his hea<l, and roll over to 146 face Che wall. If he does this, he will die. You Bust keep hi to alert and interested, or he will not lira. Some men with severe cases of pneumonia lived because of this treatment and their own will. Others with bad colds got frightened, laid down, gave up, and died within 24 hours. L. BLEEDING: Here I want to make a plea; If you are bleeding, IX) NOT put on a tourniquet. I believe more wen lost area and legs as a result of tourniquets than froia any one type of war wound. A tourniquet destroys tissue, gangrene sets in, and it is often iapossible to save the injured member. Just apply heavy, constant pressure - that alone will stop 99% of all bleeding. If blood is spurting out, stick your finger down on the wound and hold it there. M. BURN'S : Suppose you are burned. The book says to wash out the burned area and to cover it with a sterile dressing. What, you ask, can you wash it with when there is no water or none that can pass in the dark as sterile? Well, every man has hia own supply of one of the most sterile liquids you can find - his own urine. This is just one of the small bits of knowledge you may be able to put to good use. Trying it under extreme circumstances will not hurt you and may save your life. As you read earlier, tannic acid is good for burns, aa well as dysentery. There is tannic acid in strong boiled bark and tea solutions. N. THE WATF.H CURE: Hot water probably saved the lives of more prisoners of war in Korea than any other measure or remedy. We used hot water to treat men with everything from headaches to athlete's foot. For a while men came in and gave us long lists of symptoms, before asking "What do you suggest?" Our prescription was usually "Go soak it in hot water." After a while they began to say, "Doc, I’ve got thus and so. Now I know you're going to tell me to go soak it in hot water, but I just want you to know about it anyway." Maybe hot water didn't help in every case, but soaking kept the patient busy doing something that seemed reasonable and purposeful. A man who sits for two or three hours soaking a toe or hand, usually doesn't dwell on his unfortunate situation. He’s too busy thinking about the cure he’s effecting, or how much better his toe or hand feels. (For stomach aches, we might use a variation: Heat a brick and put it on your tummy.) O. WOUNDS AND 3URGEHY : There are three treatments for a wound under extreme conditions: Clean it out if possible with hot water; wash it out with urine, and/or pick out all foreign matter. The book says never to stick your fingers in a wound. If you have nothing else and if there are pieces of metal or bits of clothing in the wound, pick or dig them out with your finger. Maggots were an accepted treatnent for infected wounds during World War I. Maggots eat only dead tissue and will clean out a wound better than anything else except surgery. How, you ask, do I get hold of maggots? That's easy if you are anywhere in Asia • just expose the wound. The maggots will find it. If surgery of any kind is required, remember that the area of a wound is dead. When you realise there is no feeling in a wound, it is easier for you to stick a needle into it, to cut, or to do whatever else is necessary. 147 (We had to amputate a few toes as a result of frostbite. For the first six months, we had a little ether, but later there was no anesthetic.) You may never have to use a knife to lance boils, cysts and the like; but, if you do soak the area in hot water for a couple of days and then if it is still necessary, open it up. A most successful hemorrhoidectomy was performed in our camp. A major had a terrible hemraorhoid that bothered him dreadfully. He limped around for days, soaking in hot water as often as possible. When the condition failed to improve, he came to me. As he bent over for me to examine him, four trusty colleagues grabbed him. I whipped out my trusty surgical knife, patiently sharpened to a razor's edge on stones but originally a steel arch support from a boot. Out came the offending hemmorrhoid despite the patient's belligerent screams and profane threats. The operation was extremely successful. The patient not only lived - he lived in considerably greater comfort. P. MEDICAL S UMMARY : You, of course, know all the basic first aid the Air Force has exposed you to. And, of course if possible, you will have with you a standard first aid kit, as well aa your own special one. (Having such kits is a real luxury.) In addition you must face the possibility or even proba- bility that emergency treatment may extend far beyond those normally covered by peacetime ZI first aid. You must also face the very real probability that you may be the only peraon available to perform such treatments. Under such circumstances, you must use what God gave you: Your head and your hands. Men with chest wounds - open, sucking wounds - have stuffed them with handkerchiefs or tom shirts end kept going. Men have broken their backs when they bailed out or hit the ground. After regaining consciousness, they have rolled around for a stick or board, strapped it to them in a fashion and moved on. Men with severe wounds have amputated a limb, whittled a crutch, and kept going. Many things are poaeible to those with will and determination. Q. THEFT : In a prisoner of war camp you learn not only to scrounge but also to steal proficiently. When I got back to the States, it took me u long time to lesrn to keep my hand in my pockets when I walked through dime stores. Sometime you steal because an object is useful to you. More often you steal things you know you can't use. We figured that everything cost the Communists money or efforts, so that we made additional money or effort necessary when we stole any item. Also, thievery built up our morale. One enlisted man in our camp was a professional thief who perfected his calling at the Communists expense. The Chinese camp commander eventually became so enraged that he called in our man. When the PW returned, we were curious about what had happened. He explained that he stood stiffly at attention while the commander chewed him at length (and in Chinese) about his thefts. "He was so hot about it, that he impressed me. In fact, I think I ought to take back his watch and pen that I just lifted." In the camp known us "Death Valley", we stole a complete building. The Communists had let us build a little hospital, had given us two 5f> gullun drums for a stove, but wouldn’t give us any wood for it. Nearby there was a wooden building, with mud plaster on the outside. Over a period of two weeks, we surreptitiously took board after board from that building until only the thin plaster shell remained. One night we finally knocked that down, removing the last boards and every piece of straw. The Chinese didn't realise the building was gone for two weeks, and by then we had burned the evidence in the hospital stove. 148 I was called in for questioning as to what had happened to the people's building. I could only reply that there was no such building. When they looked at the place where the building had been, there was only a bare spot. How could they accuse us of stealing a building? It was too ridiculous! You may occasionally get caught in such thafts, but usually it’s worth it. Through such activities you can pay the enemy back for his harassment. Sometimes your thefts may even cause your captors to cease harassing activi- ties. In any event, you have a lot of fun outwitting them. R. KEEP A SENSE OF HUMOUR ; Humour is important in a prisoner of war camp. Even though everything around you ia tragic, you must laugh to sustain your will to survive. You have to consciously work to retain a sense of humour, a sense of the ridiculous. If the Communists tie you up for some reason, you must be able to find humour in the fact that you can tie better knots than two or three of them are doing. I actually laughed at men dying, without being able to describe then: a reality. When there symptoms appeared ations, you could estimate very closely come to know well would cling to life, bet on life expectancies. Even though to have to face auch a situation again. We used our sense of humour rather effectively in a perverted sort of counter-harrussment. Americans are the most unpredictable people in the world - and methodical types like the Chinese Communists were unstrung when they could not anticipate what we would do next. We encouraged this by deliberately moving along in one direction for a while and then without warning make a complete 180. Such activities seemed to ua our little contribution to the war effort, that we had a mission of some sort. Our PW camp was our 'front’ a small but active area of combat. Although we had no orthodox weapons, we inflicted what we could to the enemy we encountered. Some camps had one guard for every two or three prisoners. Primarily because they couldn’t figure us out nor anticipate our actions, we had two guards for every PW. A small contribution to the total was effort? Perhaps, but it gave us a sense of accomplishment and it did tie up a number of Chinese. It's hard to aay which we enjoyed more, our pleasure in a prank for our own sake or the confusion we could create by it. For example, the commies had a 50-foot pole lying on the ground, ready to be raised as a flag. We stole the pole sawed it up and burned it. One PW got 30 days solitary for it but, after all somebody had to be punished and the antic was well worth it. Right in the midst of the big germ warfare campaign, we caught a rut. The rat acquired a parachute and a USAF tag before being hung on a bush by the front gate. The chief commiaaar, dainty airy fairy type found it. lie jumped four feet in the air, did three double flips snd raced hysterically back to his headquarters. Then the officials came to investigate, and to take pictures for their files of ‘proof’ about bacteriological warfare! We roared with glee, to their complete confusion. That spoof had us laughing for weeks and such laughter kept us alive. One PW calmly walked up to a guard, socked him in the nose, grabbed his gun, tossed it over the fence into a rice paddy, and just as calmly walked away. It was marvellous because the guard could do nothing without risking punishment himself. There were symptoms you could assess listlessness, a look, turning from in various degrees and varying combin- how long a particular man you had Another doctor and I had a running I made money on the deal, I hope never 149 In every group there are characters. Look for them and encourage then to dream up stunts to make the group laugh and to confuse your captors. S. SUMMARY ; Your chances of survival can be extremely good, even as a prisoner of war, if you do these things: 1. Exercise your leadership responsibilities. 2. Maintain military and self-discipline. 3. Keep up your own and others' morale. 4. Recognise and control fear. 5. Keep on your feet, keep going. 6. Eat everything you can get hold of. 7. Nourish your sense of humour. 0. Keep your immuniiation up-to-date. 9. Practise survival self-aid and preventive medicine, using common sense and your surroundings. 10. Keep up your will to survive. Training, such as is given at the USAF Survival Training School, helps tremendously. It especially helps you over the first shock of being an evader or a prisoner. You should learn what the possibi 1 i ties arc and face them. You must master the basic fundamentals of hygiene, survival sanitation, first aid, preventive medicine and survival nutrition, including securing natural foods and the nutritive values of native foods. Training greatly increases your chances of survival. However, of all the things I’ve discussed, none is as important as your own will to survive. Regardless of where you are, how miserable your circum- stances, what the enemy does to you, MAKE UP YOUR MIND THAT YOU WILL LIVE THROUGH IT. Men had this one idea and they kept it despite everything: "I’m going to live!" 150
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Saturday, September 2, 2017
COMBAT SURVIVAL
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